Thermal Physics

Boltzmann bosons calculated Carnot cycle chemical potential classical regime closed system cm³ combined system concentration defined definition denote derivative diffusive contact dipole distribution function electric field electron energy levels ensemble entropy equal equation equilibrium ergs example expansion experimental Fermi energy Fermi gas Fermi-Dirac fermions Figure fluctuations flux fractional free energy free particle frequency gases given grand sum He¹ He³ heat capacity helium ideal gas law increase integral isothermal kinetic lattice liquid low temperature m₁ magnetic field magnetic moment molecule N₁ negative temperature number of accessible number of atoms number of particles occupied P₁ partition function photons plotted potential energy pressure probable configuration Problem properties quantity quantum number reservoir result Show solid spin excess superfluid system in thermal term thermal average thermal contact thermodynamic potential total number U₁ unit velocity versus volume white dwarf