Beyond the Ruling Class: Strategic Elites in Modern SocietyInfluential minorities have existed in some form in all human societies. Throughout history', such elites have evoked varied responses--respeet. hos-tility, i'ear. envy, imitation, but never indifference. While certain elite groups have been of only passing historical importance, strategic elites, whose mem-bers are national and international leaders, today are ultimately responsible for the realization of social goals and for the continuity of the social order in a swiftly changing world. This volume, which first appeared in 1963. marked" a major advance in our theoretical understanding of these elites, why they are needed, how they operate, and what effect they have on society. Drawing upon the work of such classical writers as Saint-Simon. Marx. Durkheim. Mosca. Pareto. and Michels, and such modern scholars as Mann-heim. Lasswell, Aron. Mills, and Parsons, the author presents a challenging theory of elites that provides the framework for her examination of their co-existence, their social origins, and their rise and decline. The elites discussed here include political, diplomatic, economic, and military, as well as scientific, cultural, and religious ones. Systematically, the author surveys available em-pirical data concerning American society, and selected materials on Great Brit-ain. Germany, the Soviet Union, and the developing nations of Asia and Africa. Written with clarity and distinction. Ifayond the Ruling Class remains a thorough and provocative treatment, rich in empirical insights, of a subject that will compel the attention of political scientists, sociologists, and historians concerned with themes of power, influence, and leadership in national and international life. Her new introduction to Beyond the Ruling Class is at once an appraisal of the current status of elite studies and a careful self-evaluation of her efforts. |
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ORIGINAL EDITION | 3 |
Elites defined | 4 |
Influential theories of elites | 6 |
Questions and pitfalls in the study of elites | 19 |
Plan of this book | 22 |
HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS | 29 |
Types of social core groups | 30 |
The rise of social core groups and social classes | 33 |
Three kinds of collective symbols | 155 |
Instrumental and symbolic functions | 158 |
Symbolic reciprocity between strategic elites and their publics | 162 |
Symbols and sentiments | 166 |
8 RECRUITMENT RESPONSIBILITIES AND REWARDS | 172 |
Desirable attributes | 175 |
The search for candidates | 177 |
Selecting desirable candidates | 179 |
Two historical illustrations | 34 |
Origins of social classes | 38 |
The perpetuation of social classes | 44 |
Marx and Engels | 47 |
The ruling class and strategic elites | 54 |
CONCOMITANT SOCIAL FORCES | 65 |
Growth of population | 66 |
Growth of the division of labor | 67 |
Growth of formal organization and its social implications | 70 |
Growth of moral diversity | 74 |
Rise of functional elites | 76 |
Elites as minorities | 77 |
4 THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF STRATEGIC ELITES | 88 |
A functional model of the social system | 91 |
Emergent types of elites | 96 |
External and internal elites | 98 |
Modes of organization | 100 |
Instrumental and expressive aspects of elite roles | 102 |
SELECTED CASES | 107 |
Elites in industrialized societies | 108 |
Rank order among strategic elites | 123 |
6 STRATEGIC ELITES AND THE MORAL ORDER | 132 |
The collective conscience and strategic elites | 134 |
Moral differences among strategic elites | 141 |
Cohesion among strategic elites | 145 |
7 THE SYMBOLIC ROLE OF STRATEGIC ELITES | 153 |
Attracting desirable candidates | 182 |
Responsibilities and rewards | 185 |
Patterns of recruitment | 186 |
9 SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS AND CAREERS OF SELECTED ELITES IN THE UNITED STATES | 198 |
Problems of definition and boundaries | 200 |
Social origins of strategic elites | 204 |
Education and careers | 210 |
Internal and external elites | 215 |
Some implications | 216 |
10 THE RISE AND FALL OF STRATEGIC ELITES | 227 |
Circulation of elite individuals | 228 |
Circulation of elite positions | 235 |
11 ELITES EQUALITY AND FREEDOM | 259 |
Equality | 265 |
Freedom and despotism | 272 |
II Social class origins of various elites | 292 |
III Trends in social class origins of elites | 307 |
IV Lineage ethnic and religious backgrounds | 308 |
V Trends in ascribed attributes | 309 |
VI Type of ascent for the disadvantaged | 312 |
VII Elites narrowly defined | 317 |
VIII Career lines of various elites | 319 |
IX The prevalence of lawyers | 325 |
327 | |
343 | |