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Obs. 2.—The Predicate may be either an intransitive verb, with or without modifying words; as, "He sleeps ;"" He sleeps soundly;" or a transitive verb and its object, with or without modifying words; as, "William defeated Harold;" or a verb denoting existence, with dependent nouns, adjectives, or participles attached; as," Europe is a large continent."

Obs. 3.-When a verb is transitive, the word or phrase on which the verb acts is called the object; as, "He gave a book;" here the word book is the object of the transitive verb gave. The object is sometimes termed the direct object, in contradistinction to the indirect object; thus in the sentence," He gave him a book;" book is the direct object, and him is the indirect object of the verb gave.

Obs. 4.-The verb to be is termed the copula, or connecting link between the subject and the predicate; as, “Life is short;" here the word is forms the copula, or connecting link between the subject, life, and the predicate, short. The Predicate includes the copula; thus the sentence, "Life is short," is divisible into two parts, viz.: the subject, "life," and the predicate, "is short." When the verb to be implies existence, it can by itself constitute the predicate; as, "God is," that is, "God exists." The copula and predicate are sometimes included in a single word, thus, "Time flies;” is equivalent to, "Time is flying." The auxiliary is also considered as a copula; as, "He will succeed."

295. Sentences are of three kinds, Simple, Complex, and Compound.1

296. A Simple Sentence contains only one subject and one finite verb or predicate; as, " Time flies."

297. A Complex Sentence contains one principal assertion, with one or more explanatory or subordinate clauses, dependent upon or modifying the principal clause; as, "He returned the book, which I lent him."

Obs. 1.-The principal clause or sentence is that which contains the leading assertion, and which is not dependent on any other clause or sentence; the subordinate, accessory, or parenthetical clause or sentence is that which modifies the principal clause or is dependent on it; thus, in the above example, "He returned the book," is the principal clause, and "which I lent him" is the subordinate, acces sury, or parenthetical clause.

1 The division of sentences into Simple, Complex, and Compound is merely adverted to here for Syntactical purposes; the subject is fully explained in the "Analysis of Sentences."

Obs. 2.-A simple sentence contains only one finite verb. A complex sentence contains two more finite verbs.

298. A Compound Sentence contains two or more principal and independent assertions; as, "Men walk, fishes swim, and birds fly."

Obs. 1.—Co-ordinate clauses are independent assertions. A compound sentence can always be resolved into independent assertions; thus, in the above example we have three independent assertions, viz., "Men walk;" "fishes swim ;" and "birds fly." Each of these clauses makes sense by itself.

Obs. 2.-A Compound sentence can be resolved into independent clauses; but a complex sentence can not.

Obs. 3.- A Compound sentence may contain two or more simple sentences, or two or more complex sentences. "John reads and writes;" is a compound sentence, being equivalent to the two simple sentences," John reads ;" and "John writes." "John reads his book, that he may improve himself, and he writes the exercises which are appointed," is a compound sentence containing two complex sentences," John reads his books, that he may improve himself;" and "He writes the exercises which are appointed."

299. Sentences are divided into Clauses and Members. 300. A Clause is a connected assemblage of words containing a finite verb; as, " What he has studied." Obs. For the different kinds of clauses, see 297, Obs. 1.

301. A Member is a portion of a sentence, containing two or more clauses.

Obs.—“The ox knoweth his owner, | and the ass his master's crib; but Israël doth not know, | my people doth not consider.” Here there are two members each containing two clauses. Clauses are generally separated by commas, and members by semicolons.

302. A Phrase is a collection of words, conveying sense, but not complete sense, because it contains no finite verb; as," Beyond a doubt;"" A man of wisdom." Obs. A phrase merely assumes, or takes something for granted; consequence of containing no finite verb, it cannot make an assertion, as a sentence does.

in

303. An Idiom is a mode of expression peculiar to a language.

Obs. Thus we say, "I have a book;" but in Latin the expression would be," Est mihi liber;" (that is," There is a book to me.") Similarly we say, "It is fine weather;" but the French say, " Il fait beau temps," which literally means, "It makes fine weather,"

304. An Adjunct is an explanatory or modifying word or phrase.

Obs. We may say, "Birds fly;" or,

Strong birds fly swiftly." In the latter sentence the words strong and swiftly are adjuncts, modifying respectively the noun, birds, and the verb, fly.

305. Syntax consists of four parts; Concord, Government, Relation, and Arrangement of words in a sentence 306. Concord is the Agreement of one word with another, in gender, number, case, or person.

Obs. The parts of speech which agree, are the noun, the pronoun, and the verb.

307. Government or Regimen is that power which one word has over another in causing it to be put in a particular case, mood, or tense.

Obs.-The parts of speech which govern, are the verb, the preposition, and the noun (governing a possessive case; as, "John's book;") Adjectives and participles sometimes govern the infinitive mood; as, "Anxious to learn ;" "Endeavouring to excel."

308.The Relation of words is their dependence upon, or their connection with, each other, according to the

sense.

309. The Arrangement of words is their relative position in a sentence.

Obs. 1.-The direct arrangement is that by which all the parts of a sentence are placed in their natural order; as, for instance, in English the subject generally comes first, the verb second, and the object last; as, "I declare him unto you." The inverted or rhetorical arrangement transposes the direct order of the words, frequently for the sake of emphasis; as, “ Him declare I unto you."

310. Apposition is agreement in case between nouns or pronouns, applied to the same person or thing, and explaining each other; as, "William the Conqueror, he who defeated Harold, became king of England."

Obs. 1.-The common and proper name of a person or thing are often put in apposition; as, "The poet Wordsworth," "The river Thames." (See 51, obs. 1.)

Obs. 2.-A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a clause of a sentence; as, "He spells badly, a habit which must be corrected." Obs. 3.-The pronoun it is sometimes put in apposition with a phrase or part of a sentence; as, "It is wholesome to rise early;" "It [that is,] to rise early is wholesome.”

RULE I. (a.) A verb must be of the same number and person as its subject or nominative; as, "I am ;" "Thou art;""The letters are written."

Observations. (b.) The subject of the verb is always in the nominative case; as, "He reads." (c.) The adjuncts of the nominative do not control its agreement with the verb; as, "Two years' interest was due." (d.) When an adjective with the definite article prefixed (and referring to persons,) is the subject, the verb is in the third person plural; as, "The sincere are esteemed."

EXERCISE I.

(a.) Several reports has been circulated. You was kindly recoived. If thou would be healthy, live temperately. In this cabinet was contained several curious antiquities. To this building has been added some spacious apartments. (b.) Him and her were married. Them are good books. (c.) The progress of his forces were impeded. The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown a few centuries ago. A part of the ship and cargo were recovered. Not one of those who are present are aware of the circumstance. (d.) The honest is respected.

Exercise on the Notes. (1.) These we have extracted from an historian of merit, and are the same as those that were practised formerly. If the privileges to which he is entitled, and had been go long enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, would be great injustice. (2.) The terms of the agreement were, as follows. The nature of his arguments were, as follow. His arguments were, as appear, most convincing.3

1 Every finite verb not in the imperative mood should have a separate nominative expressed; as, "I came, I saw, I conquered;" except when the verb is connected with another verb in the same construction; as, "They read and write;" or when the verb is repeated for the sake of emphasis. In the imperative mood, the nominative is generally suppressed; as, "Come" for "Come [thou].”

2 The phrase, as follows," refers to one subject; as, "The agree ment was as follows;" "as follow" refers to more than one; as, "The conditions were as follow." In such instances, as is equivalent to a relative pronoun, and it must be followed by a verb corresponding in number with the antecedent. "As appears," is always equivalent to, "as [it] appears," therefore it is always singular; in this case, as is a conjunction. (see 231.)

3 Mathematics, Optics, and similar names of sciences ending in ics, are plural in form, and either singular or plural in construction. Modern usage is in favour of the singular verb; as, "Mathematics is a useful study." Sometimes a different construction is employed; as, "The study of Mathematics is useful."

RULE an INFINITIVE MOOD or part of a sentence is the subject, the verb must be in the third person singular; as, " To rise early is wholesome."

Reason of Rule.-An infinitive phrase or part of a sentence is equivalent to a single noun, therefore the verb agrees with it in the singular

number.

EXERCISE II.

To do unto all men, as we would that they should do unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue. That it is our duty to be just and kind to our fellow-creatures, and to be faithful to Him, who made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational mind. His being from home occasion the delay. From a fear of the worlds' censure, to be ashamed of the practice of precepts, which the heart approves of, mark a feeble and imperfect char

acter.

Exercise on the Notes. (1.) The king he is just. Who instead of going about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon doing mischief. (2.) Which plan if it had been adopted, he might have attained success. Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit. (3.) Place the proper nominative before the Verb.-The crown of virtue is peace and honor. His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy. The subject of the elegy, is the poignant sufferings and affecting death of this unoffending prince.

1 A noun and its pronoun must not be the Nominative to the same verb; thus, "The book it is good;" should be. "The book is good." This rule is frequently violated in poetry, and sometimes also in animated language, when the sense is suddenly interrupted by the nominative being left without its intended verb; as, A victory!-yet how dearly has it been purchased!"

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2 Every Nominative requires a verb expressed or understood; except 1. The Case Absolute. (see 131.) 2. The Nominative of Address; as, Boys, attend your studies." 3. The Nominative in apposition, as, "But He, our gracious Master, kind and just,

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Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust."

3 An Intransitive or a passive verb coming between two nominatives of different numbers or persons agrees with the nominative preceding it (because, in English, the subject properly precedes the verb); as, "His meat was locusts and wild honey;" except when the terms are intentionally transposed (by the figure of hyperbăton); as, "His pav lion were dark waters;" that is, "Dark waters were his pavilion;" or when the proper subject is placed after the verb in the form of a ques tion; as, "Who is he ?"