RULE XIII. (a.) When the demonstrative this or its plural these is contrasted with that or those, this or these refers to the latter word or clause, that or those to the former; as, "Virtue and vice are opposed to each other, that ennobles the mind, this debases it."

Obs. (b.) The expression "This means," and "That means," refer to what is singular" These means," and "Those means," to what is plural.

EXERCISE XIII.

(a.) Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear is; this is the anticipation of good, that of evil. The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy, but we should not therefore consider those happy, nor these miserable. (b.) He was extravagant, and by these means he became poor. Their trade and agriculture were both extensive; and by this means they became a powerful nation.

that oats.

Exercise on the Notes. (1.) These kind of indulgences injure the mind. Those sort of favors did real injury. Bring out Extinguish this embers. You have been studying during this two hours. I have not seen him this six weeks. (2.) Give me them pens. Them are very fine houses. Which of them three books is the best? I bought them three books at a very low price.3

1 Adjectives and Adjective-Pronouns that imply unity or plurality must agree in number with their nouns; as, "This sort;""These sorts;""That sort ;""Those sorts."

2 The personal pronoun them must not be used instead of the demonstratives, these or those; thus, "Give me them books;" should be Give me these or those books " Personal Pronouns are used as substitutes for nouns; these and those always have nouns expressed or understood.

3 POSITION OF THE ADJECTIVE.-The adjective is generally placed before its noun; except :-1. When other words depend on the adjective; as, "A pupil attentive to his business."-2 When the adjective is emphatical; as, "Alexander the Great," "The poet laureate.”3. When the adjective expresses the effect of a transitive verb; as, "Virtue renders life happy."-4. When an intransitive verb comes between the adjective and the subject; as, "John is industrious.” 'You look pale." The adjective may either precede or follow the noun.-1. In Poetry.-2. When several adjectives belong to one noun as, A man wise and virtuous," or, "A wise and virtuous man (The longest adjective is generally placed last.)-3. When an adverb precedes the adjective; as, A Being infinitely wise;" or, "An infinitely wise Being." In the position of the adjective, no arrangement is allowable, which makes the sense ambiguous.

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RULE XIV. (a.) The Distributives, Each, every, either, neither, require nouns, pronouns, and verbs to be in the third person singular; as, "Every man is entitled to his share;" "Every tree is known by its fruit."

Obs. (b.) The pronoun One (see 95,) also requires nouns, pronouns, and verbs to be in the third person singular; as, "Let no one deceive himself." (c.) The other, means the second of two; another one of any number above two. (d.) Hence each other refers to two only; one another refers to more than two.

EXERCISE XIV.

(a) Each of them, in their turn, receive advantages. Every man of them were disappointed. Either of these are sufficient. Neither of the answers were correct. (b.) One often meets with difficulties, which they never anticipated even in their utmost despondency. (c.) Of the two, one shall be taken and another left. (d.) Brutus and Aruns killed one another. three candidates competed with each other.

The

Exercise on the Notes. (1.) The soldiers have each a distinct duty. The pupils have each received a reward. (2.) Each man is mortal. The regiment was disbanded, and every soldier returned to his home. Each boy in this school must obey the master. (3.) Of the three pictures, the largest hung in the midst, and the two others on either side. (5.) Did either of these twelve men assist you? Neither of these seven pupils have studied the lesson.

1 A plural noun and a distributive pronoun (unconnected by and,) must not be the nominatives to the same verb, because the plural noun requires a plural verb, and the distributive pronoun a singular verb; thus, "The boys have each a separate book," should be, of the boys has a separate book."

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2 Each is used with reference to individuals considered separately and singly; every with reference to the whole viewed collectively; as, "Each publisher has a separate establishment;" England expects every man to do his duty." Every is sometimes joined to plural nouns to denote a collective idea; as, Every seven days," that is, "Every

week."

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3 Either signifies only one of two, but not both; thus, "Take either of these books," implies that you may take the one or the other but not both. (see 92. c.) Neither signifies not either.

4 Either and neither refer to one of two only; when more than two are implied, any and none should be used instead of them; as, 66 Any of the three;" not, "Either of the three;" "None of the four;" not, "Neither of the four."

RULE XV. (a.) The word whole is singular, and can be applied to collective nouns, but not to other nouns, in the plural; as, " Whole armies." "The whole citizens;" should be, "All the citizens."

Obs.-(b.) Less is singular, and refers to quantity; as, "Less rain has fallen to-day than yesterday;" fewer is plural, and refers to number; as, "Fewer persons were present."

EXERCISE XV.

(a.) The emperor exhausted the whole resources of his kingdom during this protracted war. The whole powers of his intellect were exerted on the occasion. He lost the whole treasures that he had accumulated during the course of many years. (b.) Less soldiers were slain in this battle, than in the former

one.

He

There are no less than twenty diphthongs in the English language. He has less friends now than he had formerly. now makes less mistakes in spelling, than he used to make.

Recapitulatory Exercises on the preceding Rules.-Such was the mingled fear and love entertained for Elizabeth. Revenge or self-defence were no longer the only cause of hostility. The effect, as well as the cause, of Nero's persecution were confined to the walls of Rome. He is the most active of his brothers. The most distinguished statesmen have, of all others, the least leisure. These various rivers, all of which are navigable, each with their own tributary streams, form a vast chain of inland navigation.

ANNOTATIONS-Every adjective refers to some noun or its equivalent, expressed or understood The adjective absolute is an adjective with the definite article prefixed and having its noun understood; as, "The rich," "The poor," "The Sublime and Beautiful." The adjective absolute, used instead of an abstract noun, requires a sinqular verb, as, "The Sublime in connection with the Beautiful forms the subject of an essay written by Burke ;" when referring to persons it requires a plural verb, as, "The virtuous are respected." (See Rule I. (a.) 2 Some nouns denoting number or weight, as, pair, couple, etc., stone, hundred, etc., generally retain the singular form when a numeral adjective is prefixed, as, Three pair," "Thirty stone," but without the numeral they take the plural form; as, "They were received in pairs." Some of these forms seem intended to prevent ambiguity; thus, there is a great difference between "Thirty stone" and "Thirty stones." The adjective many agrees with plural nouns; as, Many persons. In poetry, it is often used with a singular noun in connection with the indefinite article, as, " Many a time and oft" (Shakespeare). See obs. 21, note 3, and WEDGWOOD's Dictionary of English Etymology, p. 376.

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RULE XVI. (a.) Pronouns must agree with the nouns which they represent, in gender, number, and person; as, "The Queen and her ministers;" "The officers and their men."

Obs. (b.) When a pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun whose gender is not expressed, the masculine is always employed instead of the feminine; as, "Can any one be certain of his own life?" (c.) When a clause of a sentence is the antecedent to a pronoun, the pronoun must be in the neuter gender, singular number, and third person; as, "He attends to his studies, which is a great advantage."

EXERCISE XVI.

(a.) The mind of man should not be left without something on which to employ his energies. Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, and it shall become small dust. (b.) Can any one on their entrance into life, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived? A person may make themselves happy, though they do not possess great riches. (c.) These matters were entirely forgotten, which occasion great regret.

Exercise on the Notes. (1.) I will send upon you famine and evil beasts, and they shall bereave thee. (2.) His sound understanding and refined education shewed itself at a single interview. Your idleness and ignorance, if it be indulged, will occasion many mistakes. (2.) Whoever shall win a chariot from his enemy, he shall not retire from the engagement to secure a prize. These praises, he in a short time found himself induced to retract them. This circumstance, though it raises no expectations, it may create a prejudice not easily surmounted. Whatever Chaldean antiquities he could procure, he sent them into Greece.

If you or thou begin a sentence, the same form must be preserved throughout, thus, "If you lend me the book, I shall thank thee;" should be, "If you lend me the book, I shall thank you.” The pronoun you, whether it relates to one individual or to several, always requires a plural verb; as, "You were," not "You was.

2 Two or more singular nouns or pronouns, connected by and, require a plural pronoun; by or or nor, a singular pronoun; as, “Virtue and truth are in themselves convincing." "Treachery or fear seems to have had its sway." (See Rules IV. and V.)

3 A noun and its pronoun must not be the nominative to the same verb; thus, "The book it is good;" should be "The book is good;" (see Rule II., note I.) Also, the noun and its pronoun must not be the objective to the same verb, thus, "The letter, he has written it;" should be, "He has written the letter."

RULE XVII. (a.) A Pronoun after than or as, is either the nominative to some verb, or is governed by a verb or preposition expressed or understood; as, "He is wiser than I [am];" "They respected him more than [they respected] me.'

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Obs. They respected him more than I," would mean, they respected him more than I respected him." (b.) Than is always conjunction, and consequently it cannot govern a case; "Than whom,' should be "Than who," but it is better to avoid the use of the relative after than, and say, "Than he."

EXERCISE XVII.

He is tall as her.

She

(a.) John can write better than me. is as good as him. The undertaking was much better executed by his brother, than he. They are as great gainers as us. They are stronger than him. He can draw as skilfully as her. (b.) Alfred, than whom a wiser king never governed England, defeated the Danish invaders. His brother, than whom a better man never lived, has just died.

Exercise on the Notes. (1.) Many acknowledge the excellence of education, who cannot explain wherein it consists. (2.) They who are attentive shall be rewarded. They who are negligent shall be punished. (3.) It is remarkable, his continual endeavours to serve us, notwithstanding our ingratitude. (4.) He and you were attentive. You, I, and he have been writing letters.

Where a pronoun or a prononimal adjective will not express the meaning clearly, the noun must be inserted instead of it; thus, in the sentence, "We see the beautiful variety of color in the rainbow, and are led to consider the cause of it," the word it should be replaced by that variety.

2 They may be used at the beginning of a sentence, when there is a particular reference to an antecedent; as, "The troops are assembled. They are ready to march." But those must be used instead of they, when a noun is understood, and when there is no reference to an antecedent; as, "Those that sin must suffer."

"It

3 It is and it was are often used in a plural construction; as, was those persons that did it," it would, however, be better to say, "Those were the persons that did it." This mode of expression must not be used, when the cause of any effect is not implied, thus, "It was useless his arguments, although they were convincing," should be "His arguments were useless although they were convincing.'

In the position of the personal pronouns, the first is placed last, and the second is placed before the third and first; as, "He and I," "You, he, and I."