313. Figures of Speech are intentional deviations from the usual spelling, syntactical construction, or proper application, of words. 314. They are divided into three classes-1. Figures of Orthography. 2. Figures of Syntax. 3. Figures of Rhetoric. 1. FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 315. The figures of Orthography are intentional deviations from the usual form or spelling of words. 316. The figures of Orthography are, Aphærěsis, Syncopě, Apocope; Prosthesis, Paragoge, Diæresis, Synæresis, and Tmesis 317. Apheresis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning of a word; as, 'gainst for against. 318. Syncope rejects a letter or syllable from the middle of a word; as, o'er for over ;se'nnight for sevennight. 319. Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of a word; as, th' for the; morn for morning. Apheresis, Syncope, and Apocope are included under the general name Elision, which signifies the cutting off a letter or syllable either at the beginning, middle, or end of a word. 320. Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a word; as, arise for rise. Epenthesis is the insertion of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word; as in black-a-moor for black-moor. 321. Paragōge adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word; as, awaken for awake. 322. Diærěsis is the mark · placed over the latter of two vowels to denote that they are to be pronounced, not as a diphthong, but separately, as in aërial. 323. Synæresis is the contraction of two vowels or two syllables into one; as, ae in Israel, ie in alienate. Two words are also frequently contracted into one; as, 'Tïs, for it is. 324. Tmēsis is the separation of the parts of a compound word by introducing a word between them; as, "To God ward,” that is, "Toward God." 325. Figures of Orthography are seldom found in Prose. Such contractions as, can't for cannot; shan't for shall not, etc., are chiefly colloquial. II. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 326. Figures of Syntax are intentional deviations from the ordinary construction of words. 327. The figures of Syntax are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Ellage, and Hyperbăton. 328. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to supply the regular or full construction. (see Rule XLVI.) Obs. Syllepsis is a figure by which a word is taken in two senses at once, the literal and the metaphorical; as, " Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them," [i. e. the citizens.] I and thou are sylleptically the same as we. 329. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous or unnecessary words; as, "I went home full of a great many serious reflections." Here the words “ a great many" are superfluous, and should be omitted. Obs. 1.-Pleonasm is a fault which should be avoided. It is allowable only when it repeats an idea in order to impress it more strongly, or in poetry; as, "I saw it with my own eyes;" "The sea-girt isle." Obs. 2.-Tautology is the repetition of the same meaning in different words; as, "An old, ancient city." Obs. 3.-Asyndĕton is the omission of conjunctions; as, "I came, I saw, I conquered." It frequently imparts energy and animation to the narrative. Polysyndeton is the repetition of conjunctions, and it is used when we wish to dwell impressively on particulars; as, "Talent, and valor, and generosity rendered him illustrious." Obs. 4-Periphrasis, or Circumlocution, is the use of several words to denote one object; as, "The juice of the grape," for, wine. 330. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another; as, "Slow rises worth by poverty depressed.' Here the adjective slow is used for the adverb slowly. Obs. Enallage, as implying the use of one part of speech for another, should be used very sparingly. It also means a substitution of one gender, number, case, person, tense, mood, or voice of the same word for another; as, "Cæsar crosses the Rubicon and enters Italy," that is, "crossed the Rubicon and entered Italy.” 331. Hyperbăton is the transposition of words; as, "Silver and gold have I none.” Obs.-Hyperbaton is frequently used in poetry. It must not be employed when it produces ambiguity or obscurity; thus, "If he was not the greatest king, he was the best actor of majesty at least," should be, "he was at least the best actor of majesty." III, FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 332. Figures of Rhetoric are deviations from the ordinary application and literal meaning of a word or phrase. 333. The principal Figures of Rhetoric are-Simile or Comparison, Metaphor, Allegory, Metonymy, Synec doche or Comprehension, Personification or Prosopopeia, Antithesis, Allusion, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Irony, Sarcasm, Paraleipsis, and Climax. Obs.-Figures of words are sometimes called tropes; as, “Wellington was the shield and sword of England.” 334. A Simile is a formal comparison expressed by the sign like or as; as, "He was like a lion in battle;" Thy word is as a lamp to my feet."+ 66 Obs. A simile should be natural, striking, and suitable to the subject; as, 66 Like the leaves of the forest, when summer is green, That host with their banners at sunset were seen; Like the leaves of the forest, when autumn hath blown, That host on the morrow lay scattered and strown."-Byron. 335. A Metaphor is a comparison without the sign like or as; "He was a lion in battle;" "Thy word is a lamp to my feet." Obs.-If in a simile the sign of comparison (like or as) be dropped, the figure becomes a metaphor; thus, "He was like a lion," is a simile; "He is a lion," is a metaphor. The simile is the figure of calm description; the metaphor, the figure of passion. The simile compares two objects, and is therefore weaker than the metaphor, which seems to identify two objects. 336. An Allegory is a continuation of several metaphors re erring to the same subject. Obs.-Parables and fables are allegories. There is a beautiful allegory in the 80th Psalm, in which the Jewish nation is represented under the symbol of a vine : Metaphors should not be employed except when suitable ordinary terms are wanting, or when they are more significant or beautiful than the ordinary words. They should not be far-fetched: in other words, they should be clear, easy, and natural. This rule is transgressed in Armstrong's "tenacious paste of solid milk," for cheese. Figurative language of any kind, and ordinary language, should not be so intermixed, that part of a sentence must be understood figuratively, and part, literally. The following sentence is, therefore, exceptionable. Penelope, bewailing the abrupt departure of Telema chus, is made to speak thus, in Pope's translation of the Odyssey:Now from my fond embrace, by tempests torn, Our other column of the state is borne : Nor took a kind adieu, nor sought consent." A column, certainly, cannot be blamed for not bidding farewell, and fin not seeking consent.-GRANT'S English Grammar. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt; thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou prepared'st room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. It sent out its boughs unto the sea, and its branches unto the river. Why hast thou broken down its hedges, so that all they who pass by the way do pluck it? The boar out of the wood doth waste it and the wild beast of the field doth devour it." "He 337. Metonymy is a figure by which the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause; as, "He reads Milton," that is, "Milton's works ;""Grey hairs should be respected;" that is, "Old age should be respected." Obs. It also substitutes the sign for the thing signified; as, assumed the sceptre," that is, "the sovereignty." It also puts the general for the special, and the special for the general; as, Preach the gospel to every creature," that is, "to every human being;" "Give us this day our daily bread," that is, "all the necessaries of life." It also substitutes the abstract for the concrete term; as, "There Honour comes, a pilgrim grey, To deck the turf that wraps their clay; To dwell a weeping hermit there."-Collins. 338. Synecdoche is a figure by which the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole, or the container for the thing contained; as, "All the world wondered," that is, "Every one wondered;" "A sail appeared," that is, "A ship appeared;" "He is fond of the bottle," that is, of [the drink contained in] the bottle." Obs.-Metonymy and Synecdoche are closely allied. 339. Personification, or Prosopopeia, is that figure of speech, by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects; as, "The sea saw it and fled." Obs.-On personification as applied to gender, see 32. 340. Antithesis, or contrast, compares things contrary or different; as, "Though deep yet clear;" "though gentle yet not dull." Obs. Antithesis is employed chiefly in the delineation of characters. A continued succession of antitheses must be avoided, otherwise our expressions may appear too studied and laboured. Consistency must be observed in the use of the figures of speech; thus Shakespeare's "To take up arms against a sea of troubles," is inconsistent, because we do not take up arms against a sea. 341. Allusion, is a reference to something supposed to be already known; as, "Fling but a stone, the giant dies." Here there is an allusion to the giant Goliah, who was slain by David with a stone discharged from a sling. 342. Apostrophe, is a turning off from the subject to address some person or thing; as, "O Death, where is thy sting?" "O Grave, where is thy victory?" Obs.-In order to constitute an apostrophe, the object addressed must be absent, dead, or inanimate. 343. Hyperbole, or exaggeration, magnifies or diminishes an object beyond its proper bounds; as, " Rivers of blood, and hills of slain;" "It is less than nothing." Obs.-Hyperbole should never be used in prose, in the description of anything familiar. In poetry we must take care lest the figure degenerate into bombastic language. 344. Irony is a figure by which we express ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts; as, when we say, "Well done!" and mean, "Badly done." Obs.-Irony is used, not with an intention to deceive, but in order to add force to our observations; the real sentiments of the speaker are shown by a sneering accent, and the extravagance of praise, as when we say of a thief, "He is very honest, indeed." Sarcasm, (a kind of irony,) is intended to insult and mortify a person; thus, the Jews said sarcastically to Christ-"He saved others; himself he cannot save." 345. Paraleipsis, or omission, is a figure by which a speaker pretends to omit what in reality he mentions, and strongly enforces; as, "His idleness, not to mention his dishonesty, disqualifies him for the situation." 346. Climax, or amplification, is an ascent from a lower to a higher interest; as, "Tribulation worketh patience; patience, experience; and experience, hope!" as Obs.-Anticlimax is a descent from a higher to a lower interest; "Die and endow a college or a cat," "And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war, |