86. What is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and it is generally equivalent to that which or those which; as, "Grant me what I ask," (or, that which I ask). "Give me

what books you have," (or, those books which you have).

as,

Obs.-What is sometimes an adjective or demonstrative pronoun; "I know what book that is." What is sometimes used adverbially; as, "What by talent, and what by industry, he eventually succeeded." In such expressions what is equivalent to partly. and that are invariable in form.

What

87. Who, which and what, are called Interrogatives when they are used in asking questions; as, "who called ?" "Which book is it? "What do you say?"

Obs. Such expressions as "Who called ?" are probably elliptical and may be resolved into "[tell me] who called." Hence the interrogatives are of the same form as the relatives. The relatives refer to a subject which is antecedent; as, "the boy who reads ;" the interrogatives refer to a subject which is subsequent, and which it is expected that the answer should express; as, "Who reads?" Ans. The boy."

88. Who, as an interrogative, is applied to persons only; which and what are applied to both persons and things.

Obs. Whether, signifying which of the two, was formerly employed as an interrogative pronoun. It is now seldom used in this sense, which having been substituted for it. It is now employed chiefly as a conjunction.

66

1 Who inquires for the name; which for the individual; what for the character or occupation. Thus, "Who wrote the book?" "Mr. Murray. "Which of the Murrays ?" Lindley Murray.' "What was he ?" "A philologist." Who is applied to persons indefinitely, but which is applied to persons definitely. "Who will go up with me to Ramoth Gilead?" is indefinitely proposed to all who shall hear the question. "Which of you by taking thought, can add one cubit to his stature?" is an interrogative addressed to an individual, as appears from the partitive forms of the words "which of you”—“ what one of you all." FOWLER'S English Language.

SECTION III-ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

89. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjec tives partake of the properties of adjectives and pronouns.1

Obs. When they are joined to nouns they partake of the properties of limiting or definitive adjectives; as, "give me that book." When used alone they are pronouns; as, "give me that."

90. Adjective Pronouns are subdivided into four classes; the Possessive, the Distributive, the Demonstrative and the Indefinite.

91. The Possessive Pronouns relate to possess ion or property. They are, my, thy, his, her, itsour, your, and their.

Obs. The adjective own is used with the possessive pronouns render them emphatical, as "this is my own book."

to

1 The term, "Adjective Pronoun," (although somewhat contradictory,) is sanctioned by established usage.

2 The words mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, also his, (when standing alone,) though commonly styled by grammarians possessive pronouns, represent not only possessors, but also things possessed; and they are used both in the nominative and objective cases, and in the singular and plural numbers; and they are used as substantives, or as substitutes for substantives. WORCESTER'S English Dictionary.

POSSESSIVE (ADJECTIVE) PRONOUNS.

Each of the personal pronouns has its corresponding possessive. These possessive pronouns are used as adjectives, and are either conjunctive (joined to), or disjunctive (separated from), the nouns which they qualify.

92. The Distributive Pronouns denote the persons or things that make up a number, as taken separately. They are each, every, either, neither.'

(a) Each properly denotes one of two; as, "each sixpence in a shilling.” It is, however, often used for every, and denotes one of more than two. Each should not be used with a plural verb. These books have each a peculiar merit;" should be, "Each of these books has a peculiar merit."

(b) Every denotes all the individuals of a number greater than two separately considered; as, every sixpence in a pound." Every is sometimes joined to plural nouns, to denote a collective idea; as, every seven days," that is "every week."

(c) Either denotes one of two, but not both; as, "take either of these books," that is, "take one or the other of these books, but not both." Neither means not either. Either and neither, may be used only of two ;as, "either of these [two] books." Each and every may be used of any number, two, three, or two hundred. Each, every, either and neither, require a singular verb.

93. The Demonstrative Pronouns precisely point out the objects to which they refer. They are this and that, with their plurals, these and those."

Obs. This refers to the nearer person or thing, that to the more distant. Hence this denotes the latter or last mentioned, and that signifies the former, or first mentioned. The same distinction prevails in their plurals, these and those; as,

"Some place their bliss in action, some in ease;

Those call it pleasure, and contentment these."

Some grammarians class yon, yonder, the former, the latter, such, and the same, amongst demonstrative pronouns.

1 Each signifies both of them, taken distinctly or separately; either properly signifies only the one or the other of them taken distinctly. For which reason the expression in the following passages seems improper; "they crucified two others with him, on either side one, and Jesus in the midst." John xix. 18. "On either side of the river was the tree of life." Rev. xxii. 2. LOWTH's English Grammar.

2 The, which is usually called the Definite Article, is another form of the Demonstrative Pronoun. The word the prefixed to the comparative degree, as in "the more-the less," is an ablative form of the Demonstrative, (corresponding, to some extent, with the Latin "eoquo"). The word to in "to-day," "to-morrow," is generally regarded as a form of the article (like the Latin hodie). The day, "the morrow," are still used in some parts of England.

66

94. The Indefinite Pronouns express their subjects in a general or indefinite manner. They are; all, no, none, any, many, few, some, several, much, one, other, and another.

All

(a) All denotes the whole; joined to a singular noun, it refers to quantity; as, "all the wine was consumed;" joined to a plural noun, it refers to number; as, "all the soldiers were slain." is sometimes equivalent to every; as, "take all the books on this table." But if we say "all the books on this table cost five shillings," we mean the whole of the books taken together, whereas, if we say every book on this table cost five shillings," we mean that each separate book cost five shillings.

66

None

(b) No, requires a noun after it; as, no person came." is used without a noun; as, 66 19 we saw none. None (although a contraction of a singular form no one) in consequence of the frequent ellipsis of the substantive is used as a pronoun, in the plural as well as in the singular number.

66

(c) Many, few, several, refer to number; as, many shillings." Some refers to quantity and number; as, .99 66 some wine;" some persons." Some generally denotes a larger number than several, but in opposition to " many," a small number; as, “many engaged in the enterprise; some of them succeeded." Much implies quantity ; as, "much money."

95. The Pronoun other is declined like a substantive; thus

96. The Reciprocal Pronouns, each other, and one another denote the mutual action of different agents; as, "They struck each other." Each other refers to two only; one another refers to more than two.1

1 The indefinite pronoun one is derived from the French on; it is regularly declined in the singular, and it has a plural; as, "Their little ones." The numeral one is of different origin, being derived from the Latin, unus.

CHAPTER VI.-VERBS.

97. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon, and which always conveys an assertion; as, "I am;" "I strike;" "I am struck."

Obs.-"The Participial forms in -ing and -ed," observes Mr. Morell, "and the Infinitive preceded by to, must be excepted from the explanation of the verb as being a word that conveys an assertion. The two former are simply verbs used like adjectives, and the latter is the verb used as a noun. Thus we say, "A loving child :" "A loved parent;" "To love our enemies is a Christian

duty."

98. Verbs are divided into two classes, Transitive, and Intransitive.

99. A Transitive Verb is one whose meaning is incomplete without the addition of an object expressed or understood; as, "The boy strikes the table;" "John receives a blow."

Obs. 1.-The subject of the verb is the person or thing respecting which the assertion of the verb is made; thus, in the above examples, "the boy" is the subject of the verb strikes, and "John" is the subject of the verb receives.

Obs. 2.—The object of the verb, is that on which the meaning of the verb appears to act, or in which it terminates; thus, in the above examples, the noun table is the object of the verb strikes, and the noun blow is the object of the verb receives. The meanings of these verbs would be incomplete without the addition of such supplementary ideas.

Obs. 3.-Any transitive verb may be used absolutely, that is, in a general way and without having its object expressed, as "Virtue leads to happiness," meaning that "Virtue leads [its followers] to happiness." Transitive verbs used absolutely frequently denote habits, as ; 66 John reads and writes correctly."

1 The term transitive (from the Latin, transire, to pass over) implies, not merely that an action passes over from the subject or agent to the object, but it also denotes that the meaning of the verb is incomplete in itself and that that meaning passes over to some object expressed or understood.