harmonies—the hues of beauty and glory cast by lovely windows, in which Art has surely reached one of her most perfect developments?

The work executed by William Morris in stained glass was very considerable-some 500 windows it is said-and a large number of these were from designs or cartoons by by Sir Edward Burne-Jones. Perhaps the best known examples are those in Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. Yet the effect of these, lovely as they are, is to a slight extent marred by the proximity, in the same building, of very different and far inferior specimens of colour-art. William Morris laid down as a principle that a general plan should be adopted for the glazing of the windows of a building, embracing a system of subjects, and a scheme of proportion of colour, adapted to the architectural requirements. This idea we can see admirably carried out in the neighbouring Church of All Hallows, Allerton, where we have a splendid example of the joint workmanship of the two friends, Burne-Jones and Morris (here, in death, not divided); every window (except one) being designed and executed by them. Spend a quiet half-hour in this beautiful church, and though you will probably deem some of the windows unequal to the rest, you will admit that this deficiency (if such there be) is amply atoned for by the artistic unity of design and colouring pervading the whole series.

To sum up as regards the art-work of William Morris. It appears probable that, notwithstanding all that he did for household decoration, his name will be longest had in remembrance and his influence longest felt: (1) among those lovers of literature who value their books chiefly, if not entirely, as artistic treasures; and (2) among those who are interested or concerned in the principles and practice of the art of glass-staining as applied to the adornment of noble architecture.

68.

III. HIS SOCIAL THEORIES.

BY ROBERT GLADSTONE, JUNR., B.C.L., M.A. THERE are probably few people in England to-day who are not aware in a general sort of way that William Morris was a socialist. And perhaps the best definition of William Morris's position is that he was a socialist "in a general sort of way," so that for once the popular idea seems to be the correct one. His was not an analytical or philosophical mind, he felt rather than thought—as he himself admitted. He speaks of his disposition as being "careless of metaphysics and religion, as well as of scientific analysis, but with a deep love of the earth and the life on it, and a passion for the history of the past of mankind."* After this warning it would be most unreasonable to expect from him a minute and academical acquaintance with the economics of socialism. Nevertheless, it will be admitted by every liberal-minded socialist that in all essentials Morris was sound enough.

In an article which he wrote for the periodical Justice (recently reprinted in pamphlet form), he thus explains what he means by "socialism." "I will say what I mean by being a socialist, since I am told that the word no longer expresses definitely what it did ten years ago. Well, what I mean by 'socialism' is a condition of society in which there should be neither rich nor poor, neither master nor master's man, neither idle nor overworked, neither brain-sick brain workers nor heart-sick hand workers, in a word, a condition of society in which all men would be living in equality of condition, and would manage their affairs unwastefully, and with the full consciousness that harm to one would mean harm to all

* How I Became a Socialist, pamph., 1896 (repr. from Justice), p. 12,

the realisation at last of the meaning of the word Commonwealth."*

In the same article, Morris relates how he became a socialist. It seems that his mind was first moved by the writings of Ruskin, and that the finishing touch to his conversion was put by John Stuart Mill's "Chapters on Socialism." For a considerable time after his conversion Morris remained in silent and inactive disgust with the existing social system. By degrees, however, he made the acquaintance of such men as Mr. Belfort Bax and Mr. Hyndman, who showed him that there were gleams of hope in the social prospect, and finally induced him, at the end of 1882, or at the beginning of 1883, to join the Democratic Federation and to proclaim himself a socialist. From this time onwards Morris never ceased to do all in his power to further the progress of socialism. He has served on committees, lectured, edited, written, and sacrificed himself generally in a manner which has called forth the admiration and respect of all who hold his views, and even of some of those who do not.

But though Morris wrote much and spoke often about socialism, he never attempted to define his views with accuracy. Even when his News from Nowhere appeared in 1891, matters were not much mended. It was impossible to take this tantalising book seriously. You remember how the hero of that tale wakes to find himself in England many years hence, but does not fully realise the change until he comes up from taking a "header" into the Thames. You remember how all the railways and factories had been abolished, how "a place called Manchester" was no more, and how the hero makes his tedious

* How I Became a Socialist, p. 9.

†Three articles, published after Mill's death, in the Fortnightly Review, N.S. vol. 25, pp. 217, 373, 513.

progress through the country in a clumsy waggon.

The rest of the picture is to match. Everything is socialised, but the life is that of the Middle Ages, or rather of early Saxon or Danish times. The resemblance between the picture of the England of the future drawn by Morris in his News from Nowhere, and the England of the future sketched by Richard Jefferies in his After London, or Wild England, is remarkable, though of course Morris does not carry his relapse into barbarism quite so far as Jefferies does.

To resume. It was impossible to take News from Nowhere as a serious exposition of Morris's views as to what society should be. It was impossible to believe that he really desired to see England revert to the culture of the times before the Conquest. It was impossible, in short, to class News from Nowhere among such works as, for instance, Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward, which in sober earnest attempt to discover the goal towards which social evolution is bearing us. Most people accordingly understood News from Nowhere to be intended merely as an artistic and literary production, in which truth and probability were subordinated to the ultimate aim of making a pleasing picture.*

This view has turned out to be correct, for in a work published in 1893, Morris has put it beyond the possibility of a doubt that his News from Nowhere was not intended to be taken seriously. His new work was entitled-Socialism, its Growth and Outcome. It was written in conjunction with Mr. Belfort Bax, and we are informed in the preface that each sentence was carefully considered by both the

* In the Progressive Review for November, 1896, Mr. Walter Crane states that News from Nowhere was written merely as a sort of artistic counterblast to Bellamy's Looking Backward, which presented a view of future society not altogether acceptable to Morris.

+ Second edition, 1896.

authors in common- a very necessary precaution, since there are a great many artistic but conventional people in this country who would like to deny that Morris was responsible for some of the opinions set forth in this book-much in the same way as the conventional admirers of Shelley have tried to make out that, after all, Shelley was nearly as conventional as themselves.*

With reference to the scheme and contents of Socialism, its Growth and Outcome, a few words of explanation are needed. The work is both a history and a forecast. It traces in outline the development of modern society from the barbaric but good-natured clans of primitive times, and the transition from prehistoric man to ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Trojan, and Chinese civilisation. A sketch of classical civilisation follows, after which the Middle Ages and the Renaissance are treated in some detail. The Reformation, and the development of the modern system are next discussed this leading to a most interesting but not altogether accurate t account of the rise and progress of the labour problem and of socialistic ideas in the last and in the present century.

It is not the purpose of this paper to inquire into the merits or demerits of Morris as an historian of socialism. We are here confined to the consideration of his social theories, or, in other words, what he thought society ought to be, and how he thought that the change ought to be effected. Thanks to the book which has just been referred to, there is now no difficulty in discovering what Morris's opinions were upon these points. In the last chapter of the book, entitled "Socialism triumphant," he draws a picture of future society which is obviously in

* See the article "Shaming the Devil about Shelley," by G. Bernard Shaw, in the Albemarle Review for September, 1892.

+ See the review in the Daily Chronicle of 10 Feb., 1893.