Formation and sailed to Waterford, landing at Cape Crook. His arrival was the signal for a general cessation of hostilities. Even the most restless of the Norman chiefs left the native chieftains unmolested, and stopped quarrelling amongst themselves, during the visit of their king. John had thus no fighting to do, and devoted himself to establishing the principles of civil law, and asserting his authority. He divided the part of Ireland in which his power was recognized into twelve counties, of counties that is to say, districts under the authority of in Ireland. a count, a name and title brought by the Normans from France. The twelve counties formed by King John are Dublin, Kildare, Meath, Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and Tipperary. Five of the twelve, namely, Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick, were old Norse or Danish districts, thus showing that the Normans were able to gain a footing first in the regions already weakened by Danish inroads. We shall speak later of the Introduc- formation of other counties, as the central tion of Norman law. authority was extended. John founded law courts, and appointed magistrates, who were ordered to administer Norman law. An element of strife was thus introduced, which produced much harm and misery for centuries, since the Norman law was founded on principles, largely borrowed from Rome, which were not in harmony with the traditional law of Ireland, as developed by the Brehons. It is true that John intended to apply the Norman law only to Normans and English settled in Ireland, but this distinction was later lost sight of, and the imported legal system was gradually extended to English and Irish alike. For many years to come, the native Irish remained outside the jurisdiction of the newly established courts. John returned to England, leaving Ireland fairly quiet, and this condition was maintained until his death in 1216. Irish land Norman system. 98. Norman law. The chief principle of Norman law which came into opposition with Irish traditions concerned the possession of land. Generally speaking, the districts of Ireland were the possession of the tribe, that is, of the supposed or real descendants of a common ancestor, who held the land in common. Their elected chief had a separate portion of the land for his customs. own use, and was absolute owner only of this separate portion. It descended, not necessarily to his eldest son, but to his elected successor. The Norman principle was quite different. William of Normandy asserted his direct ownership of all the land of England, and made grants of it to his followers and officers. They became complete owners of the soil, which passed to their eldest sons, according to the system called primogeniture. The Norman lord of the land was thus in a much stronger position than the Irish tribal chief. He was complete owner of the whole region under his authority, and he could be certain that it would pass undivided to his son. All disputes of succession were avoided, and the estate was preserved intact. It is evident, of course, that here was an element of strength, similar to the great Norman castles; and these two things were joint causes of the physical and moral power of the Norman invaders. It is equally evident that this Effect of these systems on the people. strength was gained by decreasing the rights of the tribe, who, under the Norman system, became mere tenants of the lord, instead of free warriors owning their own land. In exactly the same way, the Norman system of inheritance often did great injustice to the younger sons, who were, perhaps, the most gifted, but who received little or nothing from their father, while the eldest son received everything. The Irish chief, on the contrary, was elected, so that the worthiest and strongest was put in power. The coming of King John marks the beginning of the conflict between these two legal principles. The wars of Kildare. 99. Conditions in Leinster and Meath, 1216-1315. From the accession of John's son, as Henry III, in 1216, to the invasion of Edward Bruce, in 1315, that is, for exactly a century, fighting went on incessantly in Ireland. The great Norman lords carried on a series of savage struggles among themselves, each trying to seize the estates and wealth of the others; they also joined in the traditional quarrels of the native princes, aiding one side or the other, and receiving a share of the plunder. Typical of these struggles was "the war of Meath," which broke out in 1224 between two Nor- Meath and man families, the De Lacys and the Maréchals or Marshalls of Leinster, and which did not end until Meath was completely devastated. The "war of Kildare was a similar struggle. When William Marshall, who had taken a part in the "war of Meath,” died, his estates passed to his brother Richard. Richard Marshall had a quarrel with the English king, and fled from England to Ireland, where he hoped to escape pursuit. Three powerful Norman lords, Geoffrey Marisco, Maurice Fitzgerald, and Hugh de Lacy entered into an agreement to attack Richard Marshall and divide his estates. They invited him to meet them in Kildare, and in a pretended quarrel attacked him and wounded him so severely that he died shortly after. When Henry III heard of this treacherous act, he banished Geoffrey Marisco and executed his son, who had also been implicated in the plot. 100. Affairs in Connaught. In Connaught, the na Phelim tive chiefs were still dominant. Here a bitter struggle for the kingship of the western provinces was fought out amongst various members of the O'Conor family, the descendants and relatives of Roderick O'Conor. The Marshalls, De Burgos, and other Norman lords took part in this quarrel, because they saw in it opportunities of plunder. In 1249, Phelim, one of Connaught. Roderick's nephews, succeeded in seizing and holding the throne of Connaught against all opponents, Norman and Irish alike. He reigned over the western province for sixteen years, until his death in 1265, showing the continuity of Irish tradition and kingship, side by side with Norman rule. O'Conor in It must be remembered that the life and culture of the Irish tongue continued unabated. Poems were composed, and the poems of olden days were recited; the harpers practised their art in the halls of the chiefs; the Brehons settled questions of law; and, for centuries to come, the intellectual and moral life of the purely native Ireland continued in an unbroken stream. Battle of Credran. 1257. 101. The state of Ulster. In Ulster, things were not less disturbed than in Leinster and Connaught. Maurice Fitzgerald aimed at the complete subjugation of the northern province, and, for this purpose, led an army north through Connaught. He had gone as far as Credran, near Sligo, when he was met and defeated by Godfrey O'Donnell, lord of Tyrconnell. Both leaders were wounded in the fight, the Norman so seriously that he died shortly after. O'Donnell was disabled by his wound, and his army was left without a leader for several months. Brian O'Neill, prince of Tyrone, O'Donnell's old rival, seized the opportunity and invaded Tyrconnell, but was defeated at the river Swilly. Godfrey O'Donnell was too weak to lead his army, but, |