however, although its coast line is nearly the same as that of the traditional Province of Ulaidh, includes only a portion of its territory; and, on the other hand, comprises nearly all of three of the historical Kingdoms. The first division into four provinces was ecclesiastical when the Synod of Kells in 1152 (page 101) grouped the Church around the four arch-dioceses of Armagh, Cashel, Tuam, and Dublin. The creation of provincial "Presidents" in the 16th century by the Tudors gave them definite recognition in political affairs.

The "Book of Rights."--The existence of the seven states of Ireland about the time of St. Patrick is testified as has been already mentioned by an authority which is accepted as originating in his time. This is the book called “Leadar na g-Ceart" or the "Book of Rights (page 53). This important work was traditionally ascribed to St. Benignus, the disciple and successor of St. Patrick, and O'Donovan believes that it was originally framed by him. But the form in which it has come down to us is not the original work. In the roth century, Cormac Mac Cuilleanain (page 82) incorporated "Leabhar na g-Ceart " in the "Saltair of Caiseal," and in doing so, modified it considerably, while in the next century it was again modified by another Munster King-Brian Boroimhe. Thus modified, it has been preserved in the "Book of Ballymote," and the "Book of Lecan," two works compiled at the end of the 14th century. The " Saltair of Caiseal," which contained it, was in existence in the time of Keating (17th century), but has now been lost, and the two copies mentioned are the oldest left.

Importance of the Book.-Originally framed soon after the introduction of Christianity, the "Book of Rights" is an index to at least the internal political constitution of the Irish states. Its account of them is consistent with their previous history; it is borne out by what we know of contemporary events such as the mission of St. Patrick; it agrees in every important detail with all the later history of the seven states. The alterations made in the book were made at the instance of two ambitious monarchs, and most probably affected the relations of the chief Kings with one another, and especially with the titular " Ard Rí." So far as concerns the relations of the "provincial " Kings with the many and diverse clans that comprised their Kingdoms, it is a true and reliable description. The "Book of Rights" is, therefore, probably the oldest work on its early political constitution that any European nation possesses. It was edited with valuable notes by O'Donovan, but Professor MacNeill, in recent years, first drew attention to the importance of the information it contains when applied to early history.

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* Ulaidh, Aileach, and Oirghialla-the_evolution of Ulsler' is a peculiar historical study.

SECTION II. THE ORGANISATION OF THE STATES

The "Ard Ri."-" Leabhar na g-Ceart" takes in orderly sequence each one of the seven independent states of Ireland, enumerates the clans which comprise them, and records the tribute which each clan must pay to the King, and, on the other hand, the “tuarastail" or wages or stipends which the King bestows in return on the chief of each clan. The work is preceded by an account of the rights of the "King of Eire." This is, as has been said, the least reliable part of the work, and it is remarkable that the rights of the " Ard Rí " are only given under the section allotted to Caiseal, and he is dealt with as if he were also King of Caiseal. The rights" too, are purely personal, being merely the privilege of bestowing gifts or tuarastail" on the other provincial Kings, and receiving hospitality from them in return. The supremacy of the Ard Rí was, as has been seen, in fact only a titular one, was confined to the Ui Neill for five centuries, and was little recognised except by the " Siol Chuinn" states, of which he was the nominal head.

Relations of Kings and Clans.—But the work is much more definite and practical in dealing with the internal arrangements of the states. Each state comprises several "clans," each occupying a definite territory, which form the units of political organisation. The members of each clan are-in theory, although most probably not in fact-of common descent, and each clan is ruled by its own chief, the King of the state being also the chief of his own particular clan. To each King of a state, nearly all the clans pay a fixed tribute in kind—-cattle, sheep, hogs, cloaks, etc. These are carefully set down, and vary considerably in amount. On the other hand, to each chief of a clan the King makes gifts. They are of a different nature from the tribute from the clan, as they consist of swords, shields, tunics, steeds, hounds, etc. These gifts are the "wages," the acceptance of which is equivalent to an act of homage to the King by the chief, presumably on behalf of his clan. The clans whose tributes were thus regulated were called "saor-chlanna," or "free tribes "— "free" in the sense that they occupied their own lands under their own chiefs, subject only to this fixed payment. There were also in every state "daor-chlanna," or "unfree tribes," who appear to have been subject to arbitrary impositions.

The Dynasties and the Clans.--In each of the states there was a large number of the "free clans," varying roughly from ten to fifteen. These, it is important to note, came of various stocks, and, more remarkable still, the clans akin to the dynasty were only a small minority, and occupied only a small portion of the territories of the state. The majority of the clans traced their ancestry to sources other than the

creators of the dynasty. The states, therefore, were not at all homogeneous but consisted of different clans of diverse origins, and with varying obligations towards the head of the state. They were federations accepting the leadership of recognised dynastic families.

"Ruling Clans."-There were, accordingly, in each state a limited number of clans-not more than two or three-which boasted of a descent from the founder of the dynasty. These clans, and these alone, were free from tribute; the "gifts" to their chiefs, too, were profuse and dignified. From them, alone, the Kings of the states were selected. In all the course of history no member of any other family appears as an independent King. They were "ruling clans" free of tribute, descended from the founder of the Kingdom, and privileged to put forward, from one or other of their clans, the ruler of the state. Their leadership is hardly ever disputed, and it is recognised in some form as long as the Gaelic polity exists.

"Subordinate Clans."-All the other "free clans" had to pay the tributes laid down by ancient law. These, the majority of the inhabitants, were not, as has just been said, of the same lineage as the "ruling clans" (except in one or two cases). Instead of finding their origins in the founders of the dynasties, they traced their ancestry to other and less reliable sources-mostly external. Many clans scattered through different Kingdoms claimed descent from a common_head.* The most numerous and important of these were the many clans in different parts of Ireland (chiefly on the western sea-board), who all derived their lineage from Fergus Mac Roigh, the "Red Branch" hero of the "Táin." The tributes these clans paid varied considerably, and appear to have depended upon the conditions under which each clan became part of the Kingdom-as kindred, or as allies, or as defeated clans making terms with their conquerors.

The Names of the Clans.-The "ruling clans" all took their names from their respective ancestors-generally the immediate descendant of the founder of the dynasty. This name was prefixed by some such word as Síol, Dál, Clann, Uí, Cineal, etc., all of which indicate descent from the person whose name is appended. When the clans, in course of time, became split up into different families under new names (page 85), the original name was still used to include them all collectively. Many of the other clans were named in the same manner. But a very large number bore names which were based on a different system. Instead of

From four or five ancestors nearly all the subordinate clans" claimed descent. But these ancestries are legendary, and in some cases far from creditable.

†This circumstance (and others) has led to the suggestion that the "Ultaigh," or Clanna Rury, were the representatives of earlier rulers of the whole island, who retained their independence only in Ulaidh.

being named after a common ancestor, they were known by descriptive and collective or group" names. Of these it is noticeable that most of them terminate in the suffix -parde (-ree). Another remarkable feature is the number of these "subordinate clans" in different parts of the country which bear the same name and boast of a common origin.*

Names of Territories.-The territories occupied by the different clans, both "ruling" and "subordinate," were generally known by the name of the clans that inhabited them. Thus, "Tír Eoghain was the territory occupied by the various families that belonged to the "Cineal Eoghain"; and "Muscraidhe," " Dal Riada," etc., came to signify not only the clans themselves, but the lands they owned. In many cases, however, there were distinct territorial names, either descriptive or coming down from pre-historic times. Many of these figured constantly in history, such as Breifne, Cuailgne (Cooley), Magh Breagh (or Bregia), Fercal, Cuala, etc.

The Titles of the Kings.-The supremacy of the Kings, therefore, was only to a limited extent a territorial one. They were the chiefs and rulers of their own clans only, and they were also entitled to tribute from the subordinate clans. But in the internal affairs of the latter they had only a very nominal-if any-right to interfere. On this account the titles always given to them are, in most cases, derived from their chief seats. The annalists always refer to the Kings of Tara, Aileach, Cruachan, and Caiseal, and rightly so. They were Kings in those places, and there they received the tributes of their Kingdoms. To speak of a King of Connacht or of Munster would be to suggest a much more centralised authority than he possessed.† Similarly there were Kings of the Leinstermen, or Laighin; the Ulstermen, or Ultaigh, and Oirghialla. The local titles used by the annalists are, therefore, more accurate than the wider territorial ones, and will be mostly employed in this book.

Seven Federal Kingdoms.-The seven states, therefore, were not simple organisms of one piece, but federated groups of diverse elements in which the two or three dynastic families were a minority. In Tara, Oirghilla and Aileach the subordinate clans, although numerous, were not individually conspicuous in history; in Cruachan, Caiseal, and Laighin, however, they are not only numerous but important (especially on the entire western sea-coast), and many play an important part in later events; in Ulaidh, the Dál Riada in the North, occupying both shores of the narrow sea, are only nominally subordinate. A peculiar position is occupied by Osraidhe (Ossory), lying between the Kingdoms of Laighin * Like the Muscraidhe, Conmaicne, Dealbhna, etc.

"

† Compare German Emperor," "Emperor of the French," "King of the Belgians," as being more democratio forms in modern times.

and Caiseal, claimed by both, and yet maintaining a doubtful independence -the only one of the "raidhe" peoples to do so.

[As the "ruling clans " become the recognised leaders of the country, and their relations with each other and with their subordinate clans affect very deeply the future history, the attached table and map should be useful for reference.]

THE SEVEN STATES

"

"

THEIR RULING AND SUBORDINATE CLANS

(The descent of the "ruling" clans is indicated in italics bracketed)

Aileach

*Cineal Chonaill (Con- Cianachta (Keenaght) Inis Eoghain

[As the names employed at this period were, to a great extent, superseded when surnames were adopted, they have no modern equivalents. Wherever any difficulty might arise, however, a “key word" has been added in brackets.] "Siol Chuinn "-descended from Conn the Hundred Fighter.