of Moses. In Spain their leader was Milead, or Milesius, who had married an Egyptian princess named Scota, and from the two they took the names of "Milesians " and " Scots." Through all their travels they had been animated by the prospect of an “Island of Destiny" in the West, which was to be occupied by their descendants. Accordingly, in the time of Mileadh they despatched an expedition under his uncle Ith to discover this sacred island. Ith landed in Ireland, but was mortally wounded in an encounter with the inhabitants, and his dead body was brought back to Spain.

The "Milesian " Invasion.-Mileadh had died before the return of Ith's expedition, but his eight sons, and the other chiefs, resolved to leave Spain with their followers for the island of which they were told. In thirty ships, with thirty soldiers and a number of followers in each, they set sail, and landed at three different spots-Inbear Slainge (Wexford Harbour), Inbear Scéine (Kenmare River), and indear Colpa (the Boyne). Five sons of Mileadh were lost in the landing, including Donn, who was drowned in Kenmare River; and Colpa, lost in the Boyne; and Ir, who was shipwrecked on the western coast. The "Milesians" defeated the Tuatha Dé Danann in two battles; the first at Slieve Mis (in Co. Kerry), in which the defending force was led by their Queen Eire, and in which Scota was slain; the second at Taillte ("Telltown" in Co. Meath) where the Tuatha Dé Danann were finally overcome, and their three Queens, Eire, Fodla and Banba, were slain.

"Milesian" Settlement.-The victorious "Milesians now divided the country between their principal leaders. It is evident, however, that the original inhabitants were not exterminated. The new colonists, comparatively small in numbers, established themselves as a dominant class, but sections of the pre-Milesian people remained distinct but tributary tribes in many parts of the country-and, indeed, in some districts retained their independence. Heremon and Heber, two sons of Mileadh, divided the sovereignty of the country: to the followers of their brother Ir was given part of "Ulster," while the followers of their uncle Ith settled in a territory in the south-west called Corkalee (Corca Luige). Amergin, the other surviving brother, who appears to have been the "soothsayer" of the expedition, was not allotted any independent position. Heremon and Heber quarrelled very soon: Heber was slain, and Heremon became the sole ruler.

The 99 "Milesian Families. To the four princes of the "Milesians "-Heremon, Heber, Ir, and Ith-all the "free clans" of Ireland in later times, professed to trace their lineage. From Heremon the ruling families of most of Ireland claimed their descent, from Heber those of Munster, from Ir those of Ulaidh (counties Down and Antrim)

and from Ith certain tribes in the south-west. It is noteworthy that of these the descendants of Heremon and Heber, who were the only two who are said to have actually landed in Ireland with the invaders, became by far the most important.

Fabulous as these long lines of descent must be considered, they indicate roughly distinct groups of the Irish clans, and their historical influence was great. We shall find also that so far as regards at least two of those groups--the so-called "Heremonian" and "Heberian ❞— they can be traced to real historical characters.

Ollave Fola. Of the many kings who are said to have succeeded Heremon we are told little of importance and nothing reliable. The legends show them to have been chiefly engaged in battles with one another and with the Firbolgs, the Fomorians, and the Picts or Cruithnigh.* Of nearly every one we are told that he governed so many years, and was slain by his rival who succeeded him. The one name which stands out prominently is that of Ollam fodis (Ollave Fóla), who was of the line of Ir. He is said to have been a king of great wisdom and learning, and to have established the Feis of Tara, an assembly of the nobles and learned men, which met every three years to revise the laws and records. He is also said to have placed a chief over every district and a sub-chief in every townland, "who were all to serve the King of Ireland."

Foundation of Emania (about 300 B.C.)—About three centuries before the Christian Era the light of reliable history begins to dawn, and we meet with the legends of two important events, which seem to be based upon actual facts. The first of these is the foundation of the famous palace of Eaṁain Maca (Eamhain Macha) or Emania, which for six hundred years afterwards was the seat of the powerful kings of the line of Ir in the North. Its foundation is attributed to Queen Macha, whose right to succeed to her father's throne of Ulaidh was disputed by two rivals. Having defeated and slain one, she married the otherCimbaeth-and compelled the sons of the slain rival to build the palace, the remains of which are now known as the "Navan " Fort near the city of Armagh.

The foundation of Emania is regarded by Tigherneach, a celebrated and critical historian, who was abbot of Clonmacnoise in the eleventh century, as marking the commencement of authentic Irish history.

The Naming of Laighin (about 250 B.C.).—The second legend is that connected with Ugaine Mór and his family. This powerful king of the line of Heremon reigned in the south-east of Ireland soon after the time of Macha. He divided the country among his twenty-five

* Little is known of the race or origin of the "Picts." The legends say they landed in Ireland in the time of Heremon, and then proceeded, with some Milesian help, to Alba or Scotland, where we find them in the time of St. Columba.

children, but of this numerous family only two figure in legend. These were Laoghaire (Layra) and Cobhthaigh (Coffey). Coffey had usurped the throne and banished Layra's grandson Labhraidhe (Lowry) called “Loingseac," or "The Mariner." Lowry fled to Gaul, where he gathered a band of mercenaries with whom he landed on the coast, marched up the river Barrow to Dinn Riogh (Dinn Ree), the royal residence, where he slew the usurper and his principal followers. From the lances or Laigne (pronounced Lyna), which the foreign auxiliaries of Lowry Loingseach carried, the name of Laighin (Lyne) or "Leinster," is said to be derived. All of the so-called "Heremonian" families trace their descent through Ugaine Mór-those of Laighin from the successful Lowry, and the others from the defeated Coffey.

The division of Ireland into twenty-five parts made by Ugaine lasted for nearly three centuries, when it is said to have been ended by Eochy Feylagh, the father of Queen Maeve (page 12).

Tradition and Theory.-The foregoing traditions of early Ireland, beginning in pure mythology, obscured by wild legends, and only towards the end revealing an occasional glimpse of actual facts which are consistent with later circumstances, are obviously not history. Modern scholars have endeavoured to ascertain the truths that underlie them, and have formulated reasonable theories of the origin of the early inhabitants of Ireland. According to these the last colonisation was much more recent than is stated in our traditions, and consisted of different bands slowly pushing through the country, and establishing themselves as a dominant class over the earlier inhabitants, who, however, still remained in distinct tribes, and formed the majority of the population. These late arrivals, big, blond, fair-haired men as they are always described, were Celtic speakers, but probably Teutonic in race, who came to Ireland through Britain. In the densely wooded and thinly populated country many small bodies might be long settled in any part before arousing hostility, and even then it would be only that of their nearest neighbours.

It may be safely said that Irish history is reliable as to genealogies and the broad features of the principal events from the Christian Era, and that it is fairly reliable, from a more remote period, as a guide to such outstanding events as the foundation of Emania and the taking of Dinn Riogh.

SECTION III. THE PERIOD IN LITERATURE

The Use of Letters.-It is evident that the reliability of our early traditions must depend greatly upon the time at which written records were first made and preserved. The period at which the use of letters

was first introduced into Ireland is, however, yet another doubtful question. By some the introduction of writing is ascribed to St. Patrick: others believe that written records were kept in Ireland from much earlier times. The Irish words for everything connected with writing are derived directly from Latin. We have no manuscripts from the times before St. Patrick. On the other hand, neither are there manuscripts from the Romans who occupied Britain, although, of course, they were well acquainted with letters. There was much intercourse between Ireland and the Roman Empire: there are frequent references to books written before St. Patrick came, and to laws which were recorded before his arrival. The sudden general adoption of writing immediately after the time of St. Patrick suggests some knowledge of it before his time. The probabilities are that the use of letters was known in a certain degree to the Irish for some time prior to the introduction of Christianity, but was not generally known until after that event.

Ogham Writing.-There was one form of writing, however, which was peculiar to the Gaelic race. This was Ogam (Ogham, pronounced Owum.). The Ogham alphabet was simple and primitive, but ingenious. On each side or across a central line or stem, smaller lines were marked; the number, position, and direction of these lines indicating the letter which it was intended to represent. Ogham was mostly inscribed on wooden tablets, but was also cut in stone. The latter are the only specimens that have been preserved. Two hundred of them have been collected : most have been found in the south-west of Ireland, some in Wales, and a few in Scotland. The key to the Ogham alphabet was found in the "Book of Ballymote," written in the 14th century. The antiquity of Ogham is uncertain, but it is evident that it was too laborious as a method of writing to be adapted to anything like continued narrative.

Tradition. Oral tradition, handed down from generation to generation, is, therefore, our only source of information about Ireland until after the Christian Era. As every clan had its specially trained historians, their tribal traditions may have been fairly well preserved. Especially would this be so respecting the genealogies of the tribal chiefs, although a false pride may have prefixed lists of spurious ancestors. Early tradition is, therefore, very limited in scope, and fails to give any comprehensive view of the development of the Irish people as a whole. The extent to which it may be considered as reliable has already been pointed out.

The "Mythological Cycle."-Although no literature has come down to us from this period it occupies, nevertheless, an important place in Irish literature. Later works and later writers during many centuries have narrated the strange adventures of the early colonies and the exploits of their mysterious personages who

figure at one time as gods and at another as kings and heroes. The literature referring to this period produced in later ages has been grouped as the "mythological cycle." The “Leadar Gadála” (Lour Gawaula) or "Book of Invasions," fragments of which are preserved in the Book of Ballymote and Book of Leinster, tells of the early colonies. The "First Battle of Moytirra" describes the battle in which the Firbolgs were defeated, and King Nuadh lost his hand. The "Second Battle of Moytirra" narrates the defeat of the Fomorians, the slaying of "Nuadh of the Silver Hand " by the Fomorian " Balor of the Evil Eye," and the death of Balor by the spear of Lugh Lamh-fhada (“Lugh the Long-handed"). In the "Fate of the Children of Tuireann." we learn how Lugh compelled his rivals to collect the eric or fine which enabled him to defeat the Fomorians. The "Fate of the Children of Lir" and the "Destruction of Dinn Riogh" are among the many other pieces which deal with events laid in this period.

Irish Mythology.-The frequent references in our literature to the gods and goddesses of Pagan Ireland render necessary some knowledge of those mysterious deities. They do not hold the position held by the classical deities, their different attributes are not so definite, and their relations to each other are not so clear. The Dagda and his son Angus resided in Brugh na Boinne, where are situated the great sepulchral mounds of New Grange on the Boyne. Lugh and Ogma were brothers of the Dagda. Lugh gave its name to the city of Lyons in France, and in Irish to the month of August (Lughnas), in which month the Games of Taillte (Teltown) were celebrated in his honour. Manannán, the son of Lir, was a sea-god; Goibniu was the metal-worker; Diancecht the healer. Amongst the goddesses were Dana or Ana, the "mother of the gods "; Brigit, a daughter of the Dagda, and the goddess of poetry; and the wargoddesses Macha and Mór-rigu.

There is much in the relations of the various deities to suggest that the gods of different eras had become grouped into one Pantheon.

* Events not connected with Irish History will be inserted in italics and brackets

in the Tables of Dates appended to each chapter.