This book was long believed to have been written by the very hand of St. Patrick, and was deeply venerated, and known as “Canóin Pádraig,” or “Patrick's Testament." It was in this book that Brian Boroimhe caused to be inserted the inscription declaring him to be " Imperator Scotorum (sec. V). In the beauty of its illumination, it is second only to the "Book of Kells" (c. 4, sec. VII). It is now preserved in Trinity College, Dublin.

The "Feilire of Angus."-About the time the "Book of Armagh was written, there lived Aongus Céile dé ("Angus the Culdee "*), a monk of Clonenaght and Tallaght. By him was composed the Féilire" or "Martyrology" of Angus. Every day in the year was dedicated by Angus to a special saint, and in this work he devotes a verse to each one of those saints, while a long poem is added which has been described as "the most extensive piece of old Irish poetry that we have." Many copies of the work have been made in the later books which have been preserved.

To Angus also is sometimes attributed "Saltair na Rann," a work which is, however, believed to have been written at a time later than his, but within this period. It consists of a large number of poems in Gaelic on sacred subjects.

"Tripartite Life": "Book of Hymns."-The " Tripartite" Life of St. Patrick, formerly attributed to St. Eimhin (c. 4, sec. VII), is now believed to have been compiled about the middle of this period from existing lives of the saint. It is in Gaelic with Latin passages, and forms the longest life that we have of the saint. The "Book of Hymns" ("Liber Hymnorum"), the original of which is in Trinity College, Dublin, was probably copied about the same time—although, perhaps, later. It consists of copies of poems in Gaelic and Latin attributed to saints of early Christian Ireland.

"Saltair of Caiseal":"Cormac's Glossary."-The greatest name in connection with the literature of this time is that of the famous Cormac Mac Cuillenain, who was killed at the battle of Ballaghmoon (sec. iv.). At once King and Bishop of Caiseal, he was also a scholar and a poet. By him was compiled the " Saltair of Caiseal," a great work, which existed down to the 17th century, but is now lost. It included the " Book of Rights" (c. III). Cormac also compiled "Cormac's Glossary," explaining various technical words in history, law, etc., which were then becoming obsolete. The Glossary has been described as "by far the

*"Ceile de" was a vague term applied to anchorites, etc., of noted austerity. The name survived long in Scotland.

† In Queens Co."

In "Co. Dublin."

F

oldest attempt at a comparative vernacular dictionary made in any language of modern Europe."

Gormfhlaith Queen and Poetess.-A princess with a tragic lifestory is the earliest Irish poetess whose work we can reliably identify. This is Gormfhlaith (Gormley), daughter of Flann Sionna, Ard Rí and King of Tara. Betrothed to Cormac Mac Cuillenain, she was married, upon his entering the Church, to Cairbheall (Carol), King of Laighin, who fought against Cormac at Ballaghmoon. When Cairbheall was killed in battle with the Norse, she married Niall Glúndubh, who also fell fighting against the invaders, and the royal poetess ended her days in poverty and dependence. Many of her poems have been preserved in Scotland as well as in Ireland.

Other Writers.-Amongst the many other poets of the tenth century were Cormacan Eigeas, who wrote the "Circuit of Ireland" in praise of Muirkertagh "of the Leather Cloaks"; and Eochaidh O'Floinn, who put into verse many of the fabulous accounts of the early history of Ireland. Later than these was Mac Liaig, the chief poet of Brian Boroimhe, who wrote pieces in praise of that King, and also the " Lament of Kincora" for the Dal Chais who fell at Clontarf. To him, too, is attributed the "Wars of the Gael with the Gall," which is the chief authority for the Norse invasions.

Round Towers, Crosses, "Cumhdachs."-In certain forms of art important developments took place at this time. It is now accepted that the Round Tower or Clog-teac was first erected in Ireland during the Norse invasions, and was generally built near the little chapel of the monastery to whose inhabitants it was to be a protection. Hitherto, indeed, the Irish had not been great builders in stone, but all through this period there is shown a continuous improvement in the methods and designs of their masonry. It was the time, also, in which the finest of the High Crosses at Monasterboice and Clonmacnoise, and elsewhere, were erected. Then, too, were first made the "cumhdachs" or shrines for venerated Books such as those of Durrow, Armagh and Kells. The shrines of those have disappeared, and the oldest one remaining is the Cumhdach of St. Molaise of Devenish, made of bronze plated with silver, and executed about the time of the Battle of Clontarf.

Irish Scholars Abroad.-During those centuries Ireland continued to pour forth recruits for the monasteries on the Continent which had been founded by the early Irish missionaries. Inland Europe offered now a safer refuge for peaceful minds than did the islands and coasts of the sea. Many of these exiles maintained the Irish reputation for

* Amongst those whose influence was chiefly responsible for this were Flann Sionna, Brian, and Cormac O Cillin, Abbot of Clonmacnoise.

scholarship. Charlemagne placed one Irishman, Clemens, over the school he had founded at Paris; and another, Albinus, over one at Pavia, where he was succeeded by Dungal, a famous astronomer and theologian. Dicuil, "the Geographer," wrote learned works on geography and astronomy. Most famous of all, however, was John Scotus Erigena, professor at Paris, famous philosopher and Greek scholar, whose theological speculations were discussed by three ecclesiastical councils. The wonder of Europe for the extent of his learning, he died A.D. 870.

CHAPTER VII

CLONTARF TO THE NORMANS (1014-1168)

SECTION I. NATURE OF THE PERIOD

Unity through Division.-The history of the century and a half which elapsed between the Battle of Clontarf and the coming of the Normans is sometimes presented as a narrative of complicated turmoil and disconnected warfare. The period is often dismissed as being one the record of which is a tedious story of unmeaning and purposeless dissensions. More careful study, however, will reveal the importance of this portion of Irish history, and will show a sequence of events and development of forces inevitably resulting in a politically unified nation. A knowledge of the changes that then took place is essential to a proper understanding of the future fortunes of the various elements in the Irish nation. It was an interval during which Ireland was left untroubled by external aggression and was thus free to work out its own destiny at the very time when many of the nations of modern Europe were being formed. Violence and ambition were unconsciously but inevitably resulting in greater political organisation in Ireland as well as in the rest of Europe. The barriers of the old divisions were falling, and the people were becoming fused; the literature of the period shows the existence of a strong sense of nationality--of the identity of the Gaedheal and the unity of Eire; the object of ambition was the headship of all Ireland.

The history of the period is that of the conflict between the new conception of a united nation and the old system of “provincial" Kings.

Disruption of the Old Kingdoms. During the two centuries of conflict with the Norse, many changes had taken place in both the social and political organisation of the Irish clans. Of these the most important socially was the increased power of the chiefs, who had now around them a numerous body of military followers, their immediate dependents, to the prejudice of the influence of the free men of the clan. The political changes were even more important. We have seen (chap. III) that, before the Norse Invasions, "Leabhar na g-Ceart" shows seven independent states, each governed by a king selected from two or three

ruling clans," descended in each state from a common ancestor. We now find in nearly all the states a tendency towards disruption. The ancient tradition which had, to some extent, bound the "ruling clans " by the theory of common descent has become weakened by age, and the clans themselves are splitting up into distinct families. In some cases the states separate into practically independent divisions, each under one of the "ruling clans." In others, internal feuds continue to be fought out between the rival branches. In Connacht alone does one family become unquestionably predominant.

The old tradition of common descent has lost its binding influence.

Independence of Minor States.-Resulting from these divisions, we find that many of the minor states which formerly occupied a subordinate position have now acquired a more independent political status -especially where they lie on the borders of the old states. Breifne, Osraidhe, Uí Maine, the Deisi, Uí Failghe, Laoighis, etc., now begin to figure as independent elements in the history of the country. The superior title of the "ruling clans" is still recognised. Indeed, their acknowledged leadership is an important factor until the Gaelic polity is finally destroyed in the seventeenth century. But the other clans were freeing themselves from their actual control, and many of these were now equal in strength to any single family of the disrupted dynasties. The constituent parts of the old Kingdoms become nearly equal in importance.

Adoption of Family Names.-The growth of the new family idea is illustrated by the adoption of surnames, which became general at this time.* Hitherto the different families of the political clan had been held together by the tradition of common descent from an ancestor who had flourished many centuries before. Now each family adopts its own distinctive family name, which is generally derived from an ancestor who flourished in or about the tenth century. The old political clan or "tribe " or tuath" becomes sub-divided into family clans or "septs," each bearing a distinctive name. The innovation is typical of the new divisions, and it results in obliterating, to a great extent, the old distinctions not only between the great states themselves, but also between the minor states which were comprised within them.

No Breach of Continuity. The adoption of the new family names in place of the old clan names creates a difficulty in the study of this period. It suggests a break in the continuity. This, however, would be a false assumption, and should be avoided. It should be clearly understood that the old traditions are still carried on and the political

*The adoption of surnames is sometimes ascribed to the influence of Brian, because they arose about his time. They were, however, of spontaneous origin and some of the principal ones were in use before his time.