fit for cultivation without heavy manuring only where alluvial flats have been spread over the sandplain by streams from the Darling Range, or where, in chance depressions, peaty deposits have accumulated and enjoy during the dry summer a natural irrigation from higher

strata.

III. The third belt, once covered with prime jarrah forests of magnificent hardwood, lies along and above the 'range' or edge of the plateau which forms the mass of Western Australia. Here the earth is a decomposed granite, capped over wide areas with laterite, either as a rocky cuirass', or as tumbled boulders or ironstone gravel'. Goods soils, i.e. soils responding amply to cultivation without 'artificial manures', were found, however, in substantial areas and in small pockets, wherever epidiorite dykes had intruded into the granite, or a depth of alluvium from such dykes had collected in river valleys. The settlers, as their knowledge of the timber grew, picked out these diorite soils' by the blackbutt and red-gum trees they carried, the combination being a sure sign of rich land.

IV. A fourth belt, mostly a stiff loam, occurs along the wet south coast, where a better distributed rainfall grows red-gums interspersed with karri, the giants of the Western forests, and occasional belts of pure karri, on less tenacious soil.

[See Map, facing page 16 for these belts of timber and soil.]

The close forests of jarrah, red-gum, blackbutt and karri proved insuperable obstacles to the first settlers, in haste for returns to their labours. Dwellers in Britain, which was slowly cleared for the plough by Romans, Saxons and Normans, hardly appreciate the cost in human

muscular effort which the conversion of forest into arable represents, a cost comparable to the mighty labours and small gains of an interminable trench warfare. In Western Australia the long war between men and trees has hardly begun. The land is in the Roman era, speaking comparatively. The pioneers, in effect, were like raiders on the Saxon Shore, in haste to make good their footing by the capture of a clearing that would give them instant returns. They tried the jarrah and karri forest and, failing, were forced to seek out the open limestone lands, where the tuarts grew, or the coastal-alluvial areas, types I and II. This urgent need of immediate supplies, quite as much as the land regulations which Wakefield blamed, ad nauseam, explains the scattered holdings of the Swan River settlement. Even now, with artificial fertilizers and communal clearing, settlement of the jarrah and karri country types III and IV,' on a face', i.e. in continuous areas, calls for scientific farming after heavy initial costs, partly irrecoverable. Those who know best the three barriers set by nature to the speedy conquest by European methods of the South-West corner, viz. patchy land, dry summer, and the big timber, will measure with tolerance the limited success the first attack achieved. The forlorn hope made good a footing against the timber and the marauding blacks, and hung on.

II

YOUNG PIONEERS

JOHN BUSSELL was twenty-six, Charles nineteen, Vernon sixteen, and Alfred fourteen when they set out in the good ship 'Warrior'. Wooden sailing-ships were things of beauty no doubt when seen from without. They were commonly, from within, places of discomfort and even of misery during voyages to the Antipodes, which lasted a hundred days, more often more than less. The frayed nerves that prolonged contact with a small, haphazard company may produce, even in a comfortable liner, were invariably tried to snapping-point on the tedious sailing-ship, with its ill-balanced rations, badly found. Ships free of the 'terror that walketh by night were rare indeed. Cabin passengers, as were Captain and Mrs. Molloy on the ' Warrior', lived in the stern cabins under the poop-deck, and enjoyed the freshest air. One might imagine from the charter stipulations-fresh provisions, wine and every necessary-that they fared sumptuously. They did, if in addition to fitting out their cabins, as they were required to do, with bedding, linen and furniture, they had stocked well a private larder. The Bussell boys travelled steerage, and, somewhat unusually for that class, had also fitted their own cabins. Steerage passengers were allowed bread, salt beef, salt pork, tea, sugar, flour, peas and oatmeal on a set scale, new bedding and medical attendance. No steerage passenger', ran an ominous rule, 'is allowed to take his own bedding aboard.'

The fitting of their cabin in the steerage had its drawbacks. In a postscript written there in January 1830, John described himself as sitting in a dark cabin with the decks leaking upon my letter huge drops of the effusions of swine and cattle.' Every letter written on or concerning the voyage was significantly full of praise for the provisions with which relatives and friends had laden them at their setting out.

'The biscuit that we were so inclined to leave behind proved of all things the most useful, as Fimpel, in character with the rest of his rascality, had supplied the ship with such inferior stuff that it was pronounced unwholesome by the doctor. The hams and preserves were excellent. In fact, everything is, so that you must not fail to thank again the Petersfield friends.'

Charles set down with care 'a few hints to William', who was expected to follow immediately, ' concerning the stipulations he ought to make with the charterer. The first and foremost appears to be that of having water allowed for his dogs, if he bring any out, and I hope he will by no means neglect old Caustic. Secondly, safe and dry stowage for their provisions, in case he feeds them himself, which we think most advisable. Our dogs from that circumstance are in better condition than any others in the ship. . . . As to provisions for his own use, we recommend his taking out a few sacks of potatoes. We miss Ireland's lazy root more than any other article whatever. Secondly, pickles, biscuits, gingerbread, arrowroot, wine. In fact, almost everything which your providence supplied he will find very grateful, but I think nothing more so than the gingerbread sent from our friends at Petersfield. The pickles we have found super-excellent. ... Let him lay in a good stock of coffee: it is the only

thing that will render the water palatable. One word more. Let every agreement which he makes with the charterer be in writing.'

In the same letter, posted at the Cape, Charles describes their life aboard ship:

'You have seen our cabin and will be able to picture it to yourself, surrounded on all sides with chests, boxes, gun-cases, etc., which we use for seats, with a chest of drawers in the middle, which we all use for a table. Here may be seen John perhaps reading, Vernon making a pudding for to-morrow's dinner, Alfred superintending the making of some cooling beverage, or devising methods of sweetening the water, which is fœtid to that degree, and myself perhaps taking a siesta on the sofa which Mr.

has most admirably constructed for us. Until lately it has been our custom to go up on the poop every day immediately after breakfast, with our books, and to remain there three or four hours playing chess or engaged in conversation with the ladies, for although we took books we found it impossible to read. This comfort-and it was a very great one-we have been compelled to forego on account of a disturbance in which steerage passengers were somewhat implicated. The result was an order from the Captain that no steerage passengers should go on any account abaft the mainmast, which order we, of course, felt ourselves called upon to obey. We undoubtedly miss the awning and other conveniences peculiar to the poop, but we have all too much stoicism to allow ourselves to be annoyed with trifles of this description.'

John was not long in finding another retreat. 'I have adopted the main-top as a refuge from eternal noise and foul savours.' Thence he could survey the narrow, nervous realm as from Olympus.