beginning to think from the data of the senses, the second class perceive that the senses are not final, and say, the senses give us representations of things, but what are the things themselves, they cannot tell. The materialist insists on facts, on history, on the force of circumstances and the animal wants of man; the idealist on the power of Thought and of Will, on inspiration, on miracle, on individual culture."

204. Origin and Effects. This idealistic or transcendental philosophy did not originate in New England, thought it received a special coloring and application there. It began in Germany with the writings of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling; it was transported to England by Coleridge and Carlyle, through whose works it first made its way to America. It abounded in profound and fertile thought. It was taken up by a remarkable group of men and women in Boston and Concord, among whom were Emerson, Alcott, Thoreau, Parker, and Margaret Fuller. Their organ (for every movement at that time had to have its periodical) was The Dial. Transcendentalism exerted an elevating influence upon New England thought, and gave to our literature one of its greatest writers in the person of Ralph Waldo Emerson.

205. Various Disturbing Problems.-Contemporary with the transcendental movement, all sorts of novelties and projects of reform kept New England in a state of ferment. Spiritualism, phrenology, and mesmerism attracted much attention. Temperance, woman's rights, and socialism were all discussed in public gatherings and in the press. Many of these schemes, which aimed at the regeneration of society, had the sympathy and encouragement of the transcendentalists. Some of their

leading spirits participated in the Brook Farm experiment, which was based on the communistic teachings of Fourier. Though the experiment ended in failure, it gave the world Hawthorne's "Blithedale Romance," in which the author utilized the observations made during his residence in the famous phalanstery.

206. Group of Historians-Bancroft.-During this period New England produced a group of historians who have reflected credit upon American letters. To exhaustive research and judicial calmness, they have added the charm of literary grace. Bancroft's "History of the United States" in twelve volumes begins with Columbus and ends in 1789. The first volume appeared in 1834; and to the completion of the work he devoted a large part of his laborious life. The last volume did not appear till 1882. His style is elaborate and rhetorical, and the work abounds in eloquent passages.

207. Prescott.-Prescott is a historian of wide range. Though heavily handicapped by partial blindness, he was able, through ample means and indefatigable industry, to achieve great eminence. His chosen field was Spanish history; and he spared neither pains nor expense in accumulating large stores of material. His "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," which occupied him for eleven years, appeared in 1827. It was at once translated into five European languages, and established his reputation as the foremost historian of America. His "Conquest of Mexico" (1843), "Conquest of Peru" (1847), and Phillip the Second " (1858), were received with equal favor. Apart from its thorough sifting of material and its judicial fairness, his work is characterized by grace and eloquence of style.

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208. Motley. Motley deserves a place beside his illustrious contemporary historians. If less ornate in style, he is scarcely less interesting. Like Bancroft and Prescott, he was educated at Harvard. In 1849 he published a novel entitled "Merry Mount, a Romance of Massachusetts Colony." But the principal literary labors of his life were devoted to history. In 1855 he published his "Rise of the Dutch Republic," which had cost him ten years of toil. Its superior merit was at once recognized; and shortly afterwards it was translated into French under the supervision of Guizot, who wrote an introduction. Motley continued to cultivate the same field almost to the close of his life. His "History of the United Netherlands," the first part of which appeared in 1860, was completed eight years later. "The Life and Death of John of Barneveld," his last great historical work, was issued in 1874; and, like its predecessors, was received with great favor.

209. Literature and Public Service. It is deserving of notice that many of our American authors have been more than mere men of letters. They have been distinguished citizens as well, and have served their country in important positions at home and abroad. Bancroft was appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1845, and established the Naval Academy at Annapolis. Afterwards he served as United States minister to Great Britain, 1846--1849, to Russia in 1867, and to the German Empire, 1871-1874. Motley was appointed United States minister to Austria in 1861, where he remained for the next six years. He was made minister to England in 1869, from which mission, however, he was recalled the year following without apparent good reason. The distin

guished labors of Irving and Lowell abroad will appear in the more extended sketches to follow.

210."Knickerbocker School."-A group of writers in New York, without sufficient reason sometimes called "the Knickerbocker school," deserve more than passing notice. Washington Irving, the principal writer of this group, is reserved for special study. The other prominent members were James Kirke Paulding, Joseph Rodman Drake, and Fitz-Greene Halleck.

211. Paulding.-Paulding, whose educational advantages never extended beyond those of a village school, deserves to be regarded as a self-made man. In early manhood he became the intimate friend of William and Washington Irving, with whom he co-operated in the publication of the Salmagundi papers. "The Diverting History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan" is a goodnatured satire on the attitude of England before the breaking out of hostilities in 1812. His pamphlet, “The United States and England" (1814), attracted the attention of President Madison, and thus opened the way to his political career, in which he became Secretary of the Navy under a subsequent administration. His principal poetical work is the "Backwoodsman," a narrative poem of six Books, devoted to American scenery, incident, and sentiment. It never became popular.

212. His Versatility.-Paulding's prolific pen continued active for many years, and the long list of his writings contains poetry, novels, tales, biography, and satire. "The Dutchman's Fireside," a story based on the manners of the old Dutch settlers, was his most popular work. It passed through six editions within a year; and besides its republication in London, it was translated into French

and Dutch. Paulding's writings were tinged with a humorous and satirical spirit; but the most noteworthy element in his writings was, perhaps, their distinctive national character. He was an ardent patriot; and it is American scenery and American character to which his genius is chiefly devoted.

213. Drake. Drake exhibited in childhood a remarkable poetic precocity. It was as true of him as of Pope that “he lisped in numbers, for the numbers came." His juvenile poem, "The Mocking Bird," shows unusual maturity of thought and expression. His early years were disciplined by poverty. After taking his degree in medicine, he married the daughter of a wealthy shipbuilder in 1816, and two years later went abroad. Travel added to his stores of culture. On his return he spent a winter in New Orleans in the vain endeavor to restore his health. He died of consumption in 1820. His monument bears the simple tribute written by his friend Halleck :

"None knew him but to love him,
Nor named him but to praise."

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214.The American Flag."-On his return from Europe in 1819, he wrote the first of the Croaker series of poems for the Evening Post. It was entitled “ Ennui," and characterized by the editor as "the production of genius and taste." In this series of forty poems, mostly humorous and satirical, he was aided by Halleck under the pen-name of Croaker, Jr. It was in this series that he published "The American Flag," the often quoted poem by which, perhaps, he is chiefly remembered.