Between the years 1467 and 1475, printing-offices were opened at Cologne, Augsburg, Nuremberg, and Lubec. Monks, called "Brothers of common life," founded printing establishments at Brussels and Louvain, in Belgium. In the year

1467, a press was transported to Rome; some years afterwards, to Venice, Milan, and Naples. The printing art came to Paris in 1469. It met with obstacles on the part of copyists, who feared to lose their means of subsistence; but the king, Louis XI., protected the printers.

The art was conveyed from Haarlem to England in 1468, and by Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury. This prelate sent to Haarlem, Turner, master of the robes, and a merchant named William Caxton, to learn the art. Caxton prevailed with Corseilles to come over to Oxford, and there set up a press. But before he left the continent, he translated from the French, and in the year 1471 published at Cologne, the first book ever printed in the English language, entitled, The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. "An imperfect copy of this work," says Duppa, in his notes to Johnson's Journal of a Tour to Wales, was put up to sale in 1812, when there was a competition amongst men eminent for learning, rank and fortune; and, according to their estimation of its value, it was sold for the sum of £1,060 10s." In the year 1474 (having in the meantime returned to England), he published the first book ever printed in England. It was entitled, "The Game and Playe of the Chesse: Translated out of the Frenche, and emprynted by me William Caxton. Fynysshid the last day of Marche, the yer of our Lord God a thousand four hondred, lxxiiij.”

Caxton, who died at the age of 81, in 1491, and who, in addition to having had the honor of introducing into England the "divine art"-fitly styled 66 ars artium omnium conservatrix "-was an eminent instance of the successful cultivation of letters, combined with mechanical pursuits. Amidst the onerous charge of an extensive printing-office in one of the

chapelries of Westminster Abbey, containing twenty-four presses, with about a hundred workmen, this indefatigable man actually gave to the world no fewer than five thousand closely printed folio pages from his own pen, consisting chiefly of translations from the French, or the stock of his own vernacular literature. Several of his works have subsequently passed through successive editions, and about sixty of his books. still exist. His just estimate of Chaucer, which he first printed, evinces his uncommon critical acumen. On more accounts than one, therefore, may Caxton be fitly styled the father of the English press. The well-known names of Pynson, who died 1529, Wynkin de Worde, in 1534, and Wyer, in 1542, although justly celebrated for the improvements they effected in the typographic art, the former having first constructed and introduced into use the Roman letters, claim a passing mention.

Printing hitherto had been for the most part in Latin; but the Italians in 1480 began to print with Greek and Hebrew types, and they were the first to use these.

In the sixteenth century, according to Dr. Gregory, there appeared various editions of books in Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Armenian, Coptic or Egyptian, characters.

Anthony Koburger, of Nuremburgh, was a person eminent for his learning as well as for his elegance in printing. He was styled the prince of printers, and was likewise a very extensive bookseller. Besides a spacious warehouse at Lyons, he had agents in every important city in Christendom, and kept sixteen open shops, with a vast number of warehouses. He printed thirteen editions of the Bible in folio, which are esteemed as extremely beautiful specimens of the art; but his chef-d'œuvre was the German Bible, printed in 1483, folio, the most splendid of all the ancient German Bibles, being embellished with many curious wood-cuts.

About the year 1547, we find honorable mention made of the name of Robert Copland, formerly engaged in Caxton's

office; he was a stationer, printer, author, and translator. The "Rose Garland," in Fleet-street, was his well-known residence. Anthony Scoloker was another, who translated several works which he printed, one of which, affording no unequivocal proof, however, of his prophetic skill, was intituled, "A Juste Reckenynge, or Accompte of the Whole Number of the Yeares, from the Beginnynge of the Worlde unto the present Yeare of 1547; a Certayne and Sure Declaracion that the Worlde is at an Ende." Robert Stephens, the renowned Parisian printer and scholar, was his contemporary; his erudition as a critic and etymologist, is sufficiently evinced by his great work, "Dictionarium seu Latinæ Linguæ Thesaurus." De Thou, the historian, passed the following merited eulogium upon this distinguished scholar :-" Not only France, but the whole Christian world, owes more to him than to the greatest warrior that ever extended the possessions of his country; and greater glory has redounded to Francis I. by the industry alone of Robert Stephens, than from all the illustrious, warlike, and pacific undertakings in which he was engaged. His son and successor was also of great classical attainments, and wrote many learned works." We next come, in the order of date, to the name of John Day, the equally prolific printer and parent-having introduced into the world two hundred and forty-five books, and twenty-seven children! He lived in the neighborhood of Holborn Conduit."

Richard Grafton, of London, was distinguished alike for his erudition, as well as being an eminent printer. He was a linguist, and also the friend of Cranmer and Lord Cromwell. Grafton lived in the house of the Grey Friars, since known as Christ's Hospital.

His first work was the English Bible, printed abroad in 1535, which he presented to Archbishop Cranmer and Lord Cromwell.

Thoresby mentions the New Testament printed at Paris by Bishop Bonner's means. In November, 1539, the king, by his

letters patent, "directed to all and singular printers and booksellers within this his realm," &c., appointed the Lord Cromwell, keeper of his privy seal, to take special care and charge "that no manner of person or persons within his realm shall enterprise, attempt, or set in print any Bible in the English tongue, of any manner of volume, during the space of five years next ensuing the date thereof, but only all such as shall be deputed, assigned, and admitted by the said Lord Cromwell." Accordingly, it appears, by the Bibles printed this very year, his lordship assigned others besides Grafton and Whitchurch, as John Biddel, Thomas Berthelet, etc., to print Bibles in the English tongue.

The first of these, printed this year, was a Bible in large folio, with the following title: "The Byble in Englyshe, that is to say, the Content of all the Holie Scripture bothe of the Olde and Newe Testament, truely translated after the Veryte of the Hebrue and Greke Textes, by the dylygent Studye of dyuerse excellent learned men, expert in the forsayde tonges.

"Prynted by Richard Grafton and Edward Whitchurch,

"Cum priuilegio ad imprimendum solum. 1539."

Grafton was in so much favor, that we find, in Rymer's Fadera, a patent dated January 28, 1543, as follows:

"Pro divino sercicio, de libris imprimendis."

In 1545, he printed King Henry VIII.'s Primer, both in Latin and English, with red and black ink, for which he had a patent, that is inserted at the end, expressed in much the same words as the preceding one of 1543.

In the first year of Edward VI., Grafton was favored with a special patent, granted to him for the sole printing of all the Statute Books. This is the first patent that is taken notice

of by that diligent and accurate antiquarian, Sir William Dugdale.

An eminent printer was Christopher Plantin, of Antwerp, who lived in the latter part of the sixteenth century. "I am well aware," says his biographer, "that many illustrious men have flourished as printers, such as the Aldi of Italy, the Frobens from Germany, and the Stephenses from France; but these were all eclipsed in the single name of Plantin: if these," he continues, "were the stars of their own hemispheres he was the Sun, not of Antwerp merely, nor Belgium, but the world!" His offices at Antwerp, Germany, and France seem to have been established upon the most magnificent scale, and, like one of his great predecessors, Stephens, he indulged himself in the luxury of silver types. At one time, he is reported to have paid to his proof-readers and compositors no less than one hundred golden crowns per diem, no equivocal evidence of the extent of his operations. He also retained, not only in his friendship, but in his employ, a host of the literary men of his day, among the number the renowned De Thou. His chef-d'œuvre-which has been styled the eighth wonder of the world-was his Biblia Polyglotta, in eight folio volumes, copies of which, not being now rare, produce no extraordinary sums at auction.

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Then we have the no less illustrious names of Francis Raphelengius, the celebrated scholar, and printer to the University of Leyden ; and Louis Elzevir, of the same place (temp. 1595-1616), the founder of the most learned family of printers that ever adorned the republic of letters. Elzevir, is said to have been the first who observed the distinction between the use of the consonant v, and the vowel u (which had been recommended by Ramus and other writers long before, but never regarded), as also the vowel i from the consonant j. Aldus Manutius, with whom terminated a family of printers scarcely less distinguished in the literary history of their

times, extending to

upwards of a century, was grandson to the celebrated Aldus.