To come then unto the question of duels; both by the light of reason and by the practise of men it doth appear that there is no case wherein subjects may privately seek each others lives: there are extant the laws of the Jews, framed by God himself; the laws of the Roman Empire, made partly by the Ethnick, partly by Christian princes; a great part of the laws of Sparta and Athens (two warlike common-wealths, especially the former) lie dispersed in our books: yet amongst them all is there not a law or custom that permits this liberty to subjects: the reason of it, I conceive, is very plain; the principal thing, next under God, by which a common-wealth doth stand, is the authority of the magistrate, whose proper end is to compose and end quarrels between man and man, upon what occasion soever they grow; for were men peaceable, were men not injurious one to another, there were no use of government: wherefore to permit men in private to try their own rights, or to avenge their own wrongs, and so to decline the sentence of the magistrate, is quite to cut off all use of authority. Indeed it hath been sometimes seen that the event of a battel, by consent of both armies, hath been put upon single combat, to avoid further effusion of bloud; but combats betwixt subjects for private causes, till these latter ages of the world, was never allowed: yet, I must confess, the practise of it is very ancient: for Cain, the second man in the world, was the first duelist, the first that ever challenged the feild. In the fourth of Genesis the text saith, that Cain spake unto his brother, and when they were in the feild, he arose and slew him. The Septuagint, to make the sense more plain, do add another clause, and tell us what it was he said unto his brother, διήλθωμεν εἰς τὸ πεδίον, Let us go out into the feild; and when they were in the feild, he arose and slew him: Let us go out into the feild, it is the very form and proper language of a challenge. Many times indeed our gallants can formalize in other words, but evermore the substance and usually the very words are no other but these of Cain, Let us go out into the feild. Abel I perswade my self understood them not as a challenge; for had he so done, he would have made so much use of his discretion as to have refused it; yet can we not chuse but acknowledge a secret judgment of God in this, that the words of Cain should still be so religiously kept till this day, as a proem and introduction to that action, which doubtless is no other then what Cain's was. When therefore our gallants are so ready to challange the feild, and to go into the feild, let them but remember whose words they use, and so accordingly think of their action. Again, not withstanding duels are of so antient and worshipful a parentage, yet could they never gain so good acceptance as to be permitted, much less to be counted lawful in the civil part of the world, till barbarism had over-ran it. About five or six hundred years after Christ, at the fall of the Roman Empire, aboundance of rude and barbarous people brake in and possest the civiller part of the world; who abolishing the ancient laws of the empire, set up many strange customs in their rooms. Amongst the rest, for the determining of quarrels that might arise in case of doubtful title, or of false accusation, or the like, they put themselves upon many unusual forms of trial; as, to handle red hot iron, to walk bare-foot on burning coals, to put their hands and feet in scalding water, and many other of the like nature, which are reckoned up by Hottoman, a French lawyer: for they presumed so far on Gods providence, that if the party accused were innocent,

he might do any of these without any smart or harm. In the same cases, when by reason of unsufficient and doubtful evidence, the judges could not proceed to sentence, as sometimes it falls out, and the parties contending would admit of no reasonable composition, their manner was to permit them to try it out by their swords; that so the conquerour might be thought to be in the right. They permitted, I say, thus to do; for at the best 'twas but a permission to prevent farther mischeif; for to this end sometimes some known abuses are tolerated: so God permitted the Jews upon sleight occasions to put their wives away, because he saw that otherwise their exorbitant lusts would not be bounded within these limits which he in Paradise in the beginning had set.

There is an air of modernity in his essay on 'The Method of Reading Profane History,' from which this is a paragraph :

One thing more, ere I leave this head, I will admonish you of. It is a common scholical errour to fill our papers and note-books with observations of great and famous events, either of great battels, or civil broiles and contentions. The expedition of Hercules his off-spring for the recovery of Peloponnese, the building of Rome, the attempt of Regulus against 'the great serpent of Bagradas, the Punick Wars, the ruine of Carthage, the death of Cæsar, and the like. Mean while things of ordinary course and common life gain no room in our paper-books. Petronius wittily and sharply complain'd against scholemasters in his times; in which he wisely reproves the errour of those, who training up of youth in the practise of rhetorick never suffered them to practise their wits in things of use, but in certain strange supralunary arguments, which never fell within the sphere of common action. This complaint is good against divers of those who travel in history. For one of the greatest reasons that so many of them thrive so little, and grow no wiser men, is because they sleight things of ordinary course, and observe onely great matters of more note, but less use. How doth it benefit a man who lives in peace to observe the art how Cæsar managed wars? or by what cunning he aspired to the monarchy ? or what advantages they were that gave Scipio the day against Hannibal? These things may be known, not because the knowledge of these things is useful, but because it is an imputation to be ignorant of them; their greatest use for you being onely to furnish out your disLet me therefore advise you in reading to have

course.

a care of those discourses which express domestick and private actions, especially if they be such wherein your self purposes to venture your fortunes. For if you rectifie a little your conceit, you shall see that it is the same wisdome which manages private business and State affairs, and that the one is acted with as much folly and ease as the other. If you will not believe men, then look into our colledges, where you shall see that I say not the plotting for an Headship (for that is now become a court-business), but the contriving of a bursership of twenty nobles a year is many times done with as great a portion of suing, siding, supplanting, and of other courtlike arts, as the gaining of the secretary's place; onely the difference of the persons it is which makes the one comical, the other tragical. To think that there is more wisdom placed in these specious matters then in private carriages, is the same errour as if you should think there

were more art required to paint a king then a countrey gentleman: whereas our Dutch pieces may serve to confute you, wherein you shall see a cup of Rhenish-wine, a dish of radishes, a brass pan, an Holland cheese, the fisher-men selling fish at Scheveling, or the kitchen-maid spitting a loin of mutton, done with as great delicacy and choiceness of art as can be expressed in the delineation of the greatest monarch in the world.

This is his account of a breeze (threatening to issue in a duel) in the Synod of Dort :

Upon Tuesday the of this present in the evening, for the debating of certain particular points of controversy belonging to the first Article, the Synod came together in private. It hath been lately questioned how Christ is said to be fundamentum electionis. The doctrine generally received by the Contra-Remonstrant in this point is that God first of all resolved upon the salvation of some singular persons, and in the second place upon Christ as a mean to bring this decree to pass. So that with them God the Father alone is the author of our election, and Christ only the executioner. Others on the contrary teach that Christ is so to be held fundamentum electionis as that he is not only the executioner of election, but the author and the procurer of it for proof of which they bring the words of the Apostle to the Ephesians the first chapter, elegit nos in Christo ante jacta mundi fundamenta. The exposition of this text was the especial thing discust at this meeting: and some taught that Christ was fundamentum electionis because he was primus electorum, or because he is fundamentum electorum, but not electionis, or because he is fundamentum beneficiorum, which descend upon us; others brookt none of those restraints. D. Gomarus stands for the former sentence, and in defence of it had said many things on Friday. This night Martinius of Breme being required to speak his mind, signified to the Synod, that he made some scruple concerning the doctrine passant about the manner of Christs being fundamentum electionis, and that he thought Christ not only the effector of our election, but also the author and procurer thereof. Gomarus, who owes the Synod a shrewd turn, and then I fear me began to come out of debt, presently, as soon as Martinius had spoken, starts up and tells the Synod, ego hanc rem in me recipio, and therewithall casts his glove, and challenges Martinius with this proverb, Ecce Rhodum, ecce saltum, and requires the Synod to grant them a duel, adding that he knew Martinius could say nothing in refutation of that doctrine. Martinius, who goes in æquipace with Gomarus in learning and a little before him for his discretion, easily digested this affront, and after some few words of course, by the wisdom of the præses matters seemed to be a little pacified, and so according to the custom the Synod with prayer concluded. Zeal and devotion had not so well allayed Gomarus his choler, but immediately after prayers he renewed his challenge and required combat with Martinius again; but they parted for that night without blowes. Martinius, as it seemes, is somewhat favourable to some tenents of the Remonstrants concerning reprobation, the latitude of Christs merit, the salvation of infants, &c., and to bring him to some conformity was there a private meeting of the forreign divines upon We Inesday morning in my Lord Bishops lodging, in which thus much was obtained, that though he would not leave his conclusions, yet he promised moderation and

temper in such manner, that there should be no dissention in the Synod by reason of any opinion of his.

His principal work, the Golden Remains, mainly sermons and miscellanies, was edited with a Life by Bishop Pearson (1657), reprinted and extended in 1673 and 1683. In 1765 an edition of his works was published by Lord Hailes, who modernised the language, greatly to the disgust of Dr Johnson. 'An author's language, sir,' said he, 'is a characteristical part of his composition, and is also characteristical of the age in which he writes. Besides, sir, when the language is changed, we are not sure that the sense is the same. No, sir; I am sorry Lord Hailes has done this.' See Tulloch's Rational Theology in England, vol. i (1872).

Robert Sanderson (1587–1663), the son of the squire of Gilthwaite Hall, was born more probably at Sheffield than at Rotherham, was educated anyhow at Rotherham and at Lincoln College, Oxford (where he became fellow and reader in logic), and held the living of BoothbyPagnell for forty years in spite of sequestration and a short imprisonment during the Civil War. In 1642 he was made Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford, was ejected by the Parliamentary visitors of 1648, but was reinstated after the Restoration, and in October 1660 became Bishop of Lincoln. His Logica Artis Compendium (1615) was often reprinted, and was praised by Sir William Hamilton as 'the excellent work of an accomplished logician.' The Sermons of Sanderson are also admired for vigour and clearness of thought; he is the author of the second preface to the Prayer-Book (It hath been the wisdom'); and in virtue of his Nine Cases of Conscience Resolved (1678) Sanderson has been ranked as the greatest of English casuists. The cases selected are questions of the Sabbath, the engagement (the royalist compact of 1647 between the king and the Scots against the Parliament), the liturgy, a rash vow, marrying with a recusant (i.e. a Roman Catholic), a bond taken in the king's name, unlawful love, a military life (under what conditions it is lawful), a matrimonial contract, and of usury. On some of these points most reasonable Christians would agree, as on some of them High Churchmen and Puritans would inevitably differ widely. He denies that marrying a daughter to a 'professed Papist' is in itself unlawful, but points out the many evil consequents' which render it inexpedient to conclude such a marriage; affirming that in one respect the danger is greater to marry with a Papist than with one of a worse religion, for that the main principle of his religion as a Papist is more destructive of the comfort of a conjugal society than are the principles of most heretics, 'yea, than those of Pagans or atheists' (viz. the doctrine that there is no salvability but in the Church). How far the Churchman of that date might differ from the Puritan may be seen from his answer to two of the questions raised about the Sabbath :

I. Concerning the name Sabbatum or Sabbath I thus conceive: 1. That in Scripture, antiquity, and all ecclesiastical writers, it is constantly appropriated to the

day of the Jews' Sabbath or Saturday, and not at all till of late years used to signify our Lord's Day or Sunday. 2. That to call Sunday by the name of the Sabbath-day, rebus sic stantibus, may for sundry respects be allowed in the Christian Church without any great inconveniency; and that therefore men otherwise sober and moderate ought not to be censured with too much severity, neither charged with Judaism, if sometimes they so speak. 3. That yet for sundry other respects it were perhaps much more expedient if the word Sabbath in that notion were either not at all or else more sparingly used.

II. Concerning the name Dominica, or the Lord's Day: 1. That it was taken up in memory of our Lord Christ's resurrection, and the great work of our redemption accomplished therein. 2. That it hath warrant from the Scripture, Apoc. i. 10, and hath been of long continued use in the Christian Church, to signify the first day of the week or Sunday.

HII. Concerning the name Dies Solis or Sunday: 1. That it is taken from the courses of the planets, as the names of the other days are: the reason whereof is to be learned from astronomers. 2. That it hath been used generally, and of long time, in most parts of the world. 3. That it is not justly chargeable with heathenism; and that it proceedeth from much weakness at the least, if not rather superstition, that some men condemn the use of it as profane, heathenish, or unlawful.

IV. Of the fitness of the aforesaid three names compared one with another. First, that according to the several matter or occasions of speech each of the three may be fitter in some respect, and more proper to be used than either of the other two. As, viz. I. The name Sabbath, when we speak of a time of rest indeterminate and in general, without reference to any particular day; and the other two, when we speak determinately of that day which is observed in the Christian Church. Of which two again, 2. That of the Lord's Day is fitter in the theological and ecclesiastical; and, 3. That of Sunday in the civil, popular, and common use. Secondly. Yet so as that none of the three be condemned as utterly unlawful, whatsoever the matter or occasion be; but that every man be left to his Christian liberty herein, so long as superior authority doth not restrain it.

Provided ever,

that what he doth herein, he do it without vanity or affectation in himself, or without uncharitable judging or despising his brother that doth otherwise than himself doth. ...

To the Third Question. In this matter, touching recreations to he used on the Lord's Day, much need not be said, there being little difficulty in it, and his Majesty's last declaration in that behalf having put it past disputation. I say then,

1. For the thing. That no man can reasonably condemn the moderate use of lawful recreations upon the Lord's Day, as simply and de toto genere unlawful.

2. For the kind. Albeit there can be no certain rules given herein, as in most indifferent things it cometh to pass by reason of the infinite variety of circumstances to fit with all particular cases, but that still much must be left to private discretion: yet for some directions in this matter, respect would be had in the choice of our recreations, I. To the public laws of the state. Such

games or sports as are by law prohibited, though in themselves otherwise lawful, being unlawful to them that are under the obedience of the law. 2. To the

condition of the person. Walking and discoursing with men of liberal education is a pleasant recreation it is no way delightsome to the ruder sort of people, who scarce account any thing a sport which is not loud and boisterous. 3. To the effects of the recreations themselves. Those being the meetest to be used which give the best refreshing to the body, and leave the least impression in the mind. In which respect, shooting, leaping, pitching the bar, stool-ball, &c. are rather to be chosen than dicing, carding, &c.

3. For the use. That men would be exhorted to use their recreation and pastimes upon the Lord's Day in godly and commendable sort. For which purpose, amongst others, these cautions following would be remembered : 1. That they be used with great moderation, as at all other times, so especially and much more upon the Lord's Day. 2. That they be used at seasonable times, not in time of divine service, nor at such hours as are appointed by the master of the house whereunto they belong for private devotions within his own house. His Majesty's declaration limiteth men's liberty this way till after evensong be ended. 3. That they be so used as that they may rather make men the fitter for God's service the rest of the day, and for the works of their vocations the rest of the week, than any way hinder or disable them thereunto, by over-wearying the body or immoderately affecting the mind. 4. That they use them not doubtingly; for whatsoever is not of faith is sin. He therefore that is not satisfied in his own judgment that he may lawfully and without sin use bodily recreations on the Lord's Day, ought by all means to forbear the use thereof, lest he should sin against his own conscience. 5. That they be severer towards themselves than towards other men in the use of their Christian liberty herein, not making their own opinion or practice a rule to their brethren. In this as in all indifferent things a wise and charitable man will in godly wisdom deny himself many times the use of that liberty, which in a godly charity he dare not deny to his brother.

Thomas Hobbes.

Thomas Hobbes, called from his birthplace 'the Malmesbury philosopher,' was born 5th April 1588. Of him it may safely be said that no thinker or writer of the seventeenth century attracted more attention in his own time, and that few exercised a wider or more marked influence on speculation in the following age. His mother's alarm at the approach of the Spanish Armada is said to have hastened his birth and to have been the cause of a constitutional timidity which beset him through life. After studying for five years at Magdalen Hall in Oxford, where his mind was not stirred by the usual courses of Aristotelian logic and physics, he travelled in 1610 through France, Italy, and Germany as tutor to Lord William Cavendish, afterwards second Earl of Devonshire. On returning to England he continued to reside with him as his secretary; and he became intimate with Lord Bacon, Lord Herbert of

Cherbury, and Ben Jonson. He now studied the classical historians and poets, and produced a translation of Thucydides (1628). His pupil and friend dying in 1628, two years after his father, Hobbes spent eighteen months at Paris, and perhaps also at Venice, as tutor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton. In 1631 he undertook to superintend the education of his first pupil's son, the third Earl of Devonshire, with whom he set off in 1634 on a three years' tour through France and Italy. At Florence

he became inti

mate with Galileo, the

astronomer,

and elsewhere held communica

tion with notable

scholars and thinkers. After

his return to Eng

land in 1637 he re

sided in the Earl's family at Chatsworth in Derbyshire. He now devoted himself to study, interrupted, however, by the political contentions of the times. His pamphlet De Corpore Politico seemed to bring him into danger of his life,' and he deemed it necessary in the autumn of 1640 to retire to Paris, where he lived on terms of intimacy with Mersenne, Gassendi, and other learned men of the day.

Here he engaged in a controversy about the quadrature of the circle; and in 1647 he was appointed mathematical instructor to Charles, Prince of Wales, then in the French capital. Already he had commenced the publication of those works which he sent forth in succession with the view of curbing the spirit of freedom in England by showing the philosophical foundation of despotic monarchy. The first of them was originally printed in Latin at Paris, in 1642, under the title of Elementa Philosophica de Cive, and was translated into English, in 1650, as Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society. The principles maintained in it were more fully discussed in his larger work, Leviathan: or the Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil (1651). Man is here represented as a

of Scripture, and its reduction of religion to a department of state morality, as well as its offensive political views, occasioned a great outcry against the author, particularly among the royalist clergy. This led Charles to dissolve his connection with the philosopher, who, according to Lord Clarendon, compelled secretly to fly out of Paris, the justice having endeavoured to apprehend him, and soon after escaped into England (1651), where he never received any disturbance.' In 1653 he resumed his relations with the Devonshire household, but remained always in London, and beCowley, and Dr

was

came intimate with Selden, Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood. In 1654 he published a short but admirably clear and comprehensive Letter upon Liberty and Necessity, where the doctrine of the self-determining power of the will is opposed with a subtlety and profundity unsurpassed in any subsequent writer on that much agitated question-indeed, he was one of the first to expound clearly the doctrine of philosophical necessity. On this subject a long controversy took place between him and Bishop Bramhall of Londonderry. Here he fought with the skill of a master; but in a mathematical dispute with Dr Wallis, professor of geometry at Oxford, which lasted twenty years, he fairly went beyond his depth; he had not begun to study mathematics till the age of forty, and, like other late learners, greatly overestimated his

knowledge. He supposed himself to have discovered the quadrature of the circle, and dogmatically upheld his claim in the face of the clearest refutation. In this controversy personal feeling, according to the custom of the time, appeared without disguise. Hobbes having published a sarcastic piece entitled Six Lessons to the Professors of Mathematics in Oxford, Wallis retorted by administering, in 1656, Due Correction for Mr Hobbes, or School-discipline for not Saying his Lessons Right. Here he debates with the philosopher in this unceremonious strain: 'It seems, Mr Hobbes, that you have a mind to say your lesson, and that the mathematic professors of Oxford should hear you. You are too old to learn, though you have as much need as those that be younger, and yet will think much to be whipt. What moved you to say your lessons in English, when the books against which you do chiefly intend them were written in Latin? Was it chiefly for the perfecting your natural rhetoric, whenever you thought it convenient to repair to Billingsgate? You found that the oyster-women could not teach you to rail in Latin. . . Sir, those persons needed not a sight of your ears, but could tell by the voice what kind of creature brayed in your books: you dared not have said this to their faces.' When Charles II. was restored to the throne he conferred on Hobbes an annual pension of £100, very irregularly paid; but, notwithstanding this and other marks of the royal favour, much odium continued to prevail against him and his doctrines. The Leviathan and De Cive were censured in Parliament in 1666, and also drew forth many printed replies. Among the authors of these the most distinguished was Lord Clarendon, whose Brief View and Survey of the Dangerous and Pernicious Errors to Church and State, in Mr Hobbes's Book, entitled Leviathan, was posthumously published in 1676. In 1672, in his eighty-fifth year, Hobbes wrote his own Life in Latin verse! He next appeared as a translator of Homer, publishing a version of four books of the Odyssey, which was so well received that in 1675 he completed his translation, as well as one of the whole Iliad. Here, according to Pope, 'Hobbes has given us a correct explanation of the sense in general; but for particulars and circumstances, he continually lops them, and often omits the most beautiful.' Yet three large editions were required within less than ten years. His prose version of Thucydides his first work, and awkwardly literal-was long the standard English translation. This work was undertaken by him 'from an honest desire of preventing, if possible, those disturbances in which he was apprehensive that his country would be involved, by shewing, in the history of the Peloponnesian war, the fatal consequences of intestine troubles.' At Hardwick and Chatsworth, where he spent the remainder of his days, Hobbes continued to write books, the principal of which, Behemoth, or a History of the Civil Wars from 1640 to 1660, issued surrepti

tiously from the press just before his death at Hardwick Hall, 4th December 1679, in his ninetysecond year. He is buried in the chancel of Hault-Hucknall church, near Chesterfield. Hobbes is described by Lord Clarendon as one for whom he 'had always had a great esteem, as a man who, besides his eminent parts of learning and knowledge, hath been always looked upon as a man of probity and a life free from scandal.' It was a saying of Charles II. in reference to the opposition which the doctrines of Hobbes met from the clergy, that he was a bear against whom the Church played their young dogs in order to exercise them.' In his later years he became morose and impatient of contradiction, growing infirmities and too much solitude increasing his natural arrogance and contempt for the opinions of other men. He at no time read extensively Homer, Virgil, Thucydides, and Euclid were his favourite authors; and he used to say that, if he had read as much as other men, he should have been as ignorant as they.' Macaulay pronounced his style 'more precise and luminous than has ever been employed by any other metaphysical writer.' In date Hobbes falls between Bacon and Locke, but in philosophic ideas and temper he is widely separated from either. It is by his contributions to scientific psychology, ethics, and political theory that he takes rank as a profound original thinker. His ethical theory, based on pure selfishness and the arbitrary prescriptions of a sovereign power, negatively determined ethical speculation in England for a hundred years; all the great moralists wrote, directly or indirectly, as his opponents. But his political absolutism is the most famous part of his speculations. The state of nature, he argues, is a state of war and insecurity. Moved by a desire to escape from the intolerable evils of such a condition, human beings enter into a species of contract by which they surrender their individual rights, and constitute a state under an absolute sovereignty. The sovereign power need not be monarchical, but, whatever form it assumes, it is absolute and irresponsible. Hobbes was regarded by his contemporaries and the writers of the next age as the prince of unbelievers, a sort of father of lies, and even, erroneously, as an atheist. Among those who ranged themselves against his philosophy were Cumberland, Cudworth, Shaftesbury, Clarke, Butler, Hutcheson, Lord Kames, Adam Smith, Dugald Stewart, and Stewart's successor, Thomas Brown.

From the Introduction to 'Leviathan.' Nature, the art whereby God hath made and governs the world, is by the 'art' of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an artificial animal. For seeing life is but a motion of limbs, the beginning whereof is in some principal part within, why may we not say that all automata' (engines that move themselves by springs and wheels as doth a watch) have an artificial life? For what is