beheaded on the 7th of December 1682, 'very resolutely, and like a true rebel and Republican,’ the Duke of York said.

Except some of his letters and an essay 'On Love,' the only published work of Algernon Sidney is Discourses on Government, which first appeared in 1698. The Discourses were written in reply to the Patriarcha of Sir Robert Filmer (page 559); and though tedious and diffuse, are weighty and learned, and contain admirably vigorous pas

sages.

Liberty and Government.

Such as enter into society must, in some degree, diminish their liberty. Reason leads them to this: No one man or family is able to provide that which is requisite for their convenience or security, whilst every one has an equal right to everything, and none acknowledges a superior to determine the controversies that upon such occasions must continually arise, and will probably be so many and great that mankind cannot bear them. Therefore tho' I do not believe that Bellarmin said a commonwealth could not exercise its power; for he could not be ignorant that Rome and Athens did exercise theirs, and that all the regular kingdoms in the world are commonwealths; yet there is nothing of absurdity in saying that man cannot continue in the perpetual and entire fruition of the liberty that God hath given him. The liberty of one is thwarted by that of another; and whilst they are all equal, none will yield to any, otherwise than by a general consent. This is the ground of all just governments; for violence or fraud can create no right; and the same consent gives the form to them all, how much soever they differ from each other. Some small numbers of men, living within the precincts of one city, have as it were cast into a common stock the right which they had of governing themselves and children, and by common consent joining in one body, exercised such power over every single person as seemed beneficial to the whole; and this men call perfect democracy. Others chose rather to be governed by a select number of such as most excelled in wisdom and virtue; and this, according to the signification of the word, was called aristocracy; or when one man excelled all others, the government was put into his hands, under the name of monarchy. But the wisest, best, and far the greatest part of mankind, rejecting these simple species, did form governments mixed or composed of the three, as shall be proved hereafter, which commonly received their respective denomination from the part that prevailed, and did deserve praise or blame as they were well or ill proportioned.

It were a folly hereupon to say that the liberty for which we contend is of no use to us, since we cannot endure the solitude, barbarity, weakness, want, misery, and dangers that accompany it whilst we live alone, nor can enter into a society without resigning it; for the choice of that society, and the liberty of framing it according to our own wills, for our own good, is all we seek. This remains to us whilst we form governments, that we ourselves are judges how far 'tis good for us to recede from our natural liberty; which is of so great importance, that from thence only we can know whether we are freemen or slaves; and the difference between the best government and the worst

The Grecians, amongst others who followed the light of reason, knew no other original title to the government of a nation than that wisdom, valour, and justice which was beneficial to the people. These qualities gave beginning to those governments which we call Hereum Regna [the Governments of the Heroes]; and the veneration paid to such as enjoyed them proceedel from a grateful sense of the good received from them; they were thought to be descended from the gods, who in virtue and beneficence surpassed other men: the same attended their descendants, till they came to abuse their power, and by their vices shewed themselves like to or worse than others. Those nations did not seek the most ancient but the most worthy, and thought such only worthy to be preferred before others who could best perform their duty.

Upon the same grounds we may conclude that no privilege is peculiarly annexed to any form of government, but that all magistrates are equally the ministers of God, who perform the work for which they are instituted; and that the people which institutes them may proportion, regulate, and terminate their power as to time, measure, and number of persons, as seems most convenient to themselves, which can be no other than their own good. For it cannot be imagined that a multitude of people should send for Numa, or any other person to whom they owed nothing, to reign over them, that he might live in glory and pleasure; or for any other reason than that it might be good for them and their posterity. This shews the work of all magistrates to be always and everywhere the same, even the doing of justice and procuring the welfare of those that create them. This we learn from common sense: Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and the best human authors lay it as an immovable foundation, upon which they build their arguments relating to matters of that nature.

(From Chap. i., sects. 10, 16, and 20.)

See the Lives of Sidney by Meadley (1813), R. Chase Sidney (1835), Santvoord (New York, 1881), Ewald (1873), and G. M. Blackburne (1885); and Firth in the Dictionary of National Biography (1897).

George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, was one of the foremost religious revolutionaries of the age. He was the son of a weaver at Fenny Drayton, in Leicestershire, and was born in 1624. Having been apprenticed to a shoemaker who traded in wool and cattle, he spent much of his youth in tending sheep, an employment which afforded ample room for solitary meditation. When about nineteen years of age, he was one day vexed by a disposition to intemperance which he observed in two professedly religious friends whom he met at a fair. 'I went away,' says he in his Journal, and, when I had done my business, returned home; but I did not go to bed that night, nor could I sleep; but sometimes walked up and down, and sometimes prayed,

and cried to the Lord, who said unto me : Thou seest how young people go together into vanity, and old people into the earth; thou must forsake all, young and old, keep out of all, and be a stranger to all." This divine communication was scrupulously obeyed; the advices of his friends to marry, to take tobacco, and the like had naturally no weight with him. From 1646 he ceased attendance at church; and leaving his relations and master, he wandered about the country Bible in hand, a small competency he had supplying his slender wants. Now and for the rest of his life, Fox had many dreams and visions, and received supernatural messages from heaven. Thus, as he records in his Journal, ‘One morning, as I was sitting by the fire, a great cloud came over me, and 2 temptation beset me, and I sate still. And it was said, All things come by nature; and the Elements and Stars came over me, so that I was in a moment quite clouded with it; but, inasmuch as I sate still and said nothing, the people of the house perceived nothing. And as I sate still under it and let it alone, a living hope rose in me, and a true voice arose in me which cried: There is a living God who made all things. And immediately the cloud and temptation vanished away, and the life rose over it all, and my heart was glad, and I praised the living God.' Afterwards, he tells us, 'the Lord's power broke forth, and I had great openings and prophecies, and spoke unto the people of the things of God, which they heard with attention and silence, and went away and spread the fame thereof.' He began about the year 1647 to teach publicly in the vicinity of Dukinfield and Manchester, whence he travelled through several neighbouring counties. He had now come to hold that a learned education is unnecessary to a minister; that the existence of a separate clerical profession is unwarranted by the Bible; that the Creator of the world is not a dweller in temples made with hands; and that the Scriptures are not the rule either of conduct or judgment, but that man should follow the light of Christ within.' From about 1647 he became an itinerant preacher. He often went into churches while service was going on, and interrupted the clergymen by loudly contradicting their statements of doctrine; and by these breaches of order, and the employment of such unceremonious fashions of address as, 'Come down, thou deceiver!' he naturally gave great offence, which led sometimes to his imprisonment, and sometimes to severe treatment from the hands of the populace. He was especially hostile to services held in 'steeple-houses' and conducted by formalist 'professors' (not so much the Laudians as the Puritans, with their long abstruse sermons and extravagant doctrines of verbal inspiration). The 'inner light' was the central idea of his teaching. He inveighed against sacerdotalism and formalism, and was equally vehement against most social conventions. Priests, lawyers, and soldiers were all obnoxious to him. The Lord forbade him to put

off his hat to any, high or low, and he was required to thee and thou rich and poor equally. He denounced all public amusements, and came into collision with all sorts of people; his life is indeed little else than a record of insults, persecutions, and imprisonments. At Derby he was imprisoned in a loathsome dungeon for a year, and afterwards in a still more disgusting cell at Carlisle for half that period.

His first convert seems to have been made in 1647, and soon there were thousands of the 'Friends of Truth,' the full designation of the new communion in 1650 the popular name of 'Quakers' was given to the 'Friends' by Judge Bennet. Fox continued to preach, dispute, to wander about, and hold conferences. In 1654 he was sent by Colonel Hacker to Cromwell; and of this memorable interview he gives an account in his Journal, quoted below. Carlyle's story of Fox's being equipped in a leathern suit sewed by his own hands seems to be doubtful, though Sewel (1722) distinctly alleges a complete dress of leather. Fox himself speaks only of 'leathern breeches,' a nowise outrageous garment, though no doubt his eccentricities in costume and bearing were sufficiently exasperating to his unfriends.

Amidst much opposition, Fox still continued to travel through every corner of the kingdom, expounding his views and answering objections, both verbally and in controversial pamphlets. In the course of his peregrinations he suffered frequent imprisonment, sometimes as a disturber of the peace, and sometimes because he refused to uncover his head in the presence of magistrates. He was at least eight times imprisoned, the longest spell of jail being fourteen months at Worcester in 1673-74. In 1656, the year after he and his followers refused to take the oath of abjuration, they had increased to such an extent that there were nearly one thousand of them in jail. He visited Wales and Scotland, and (after marrying a worthy widow) went to Barbadoes, Jamaica, America (where he spent nearly two years), Holland, and Germany. In these later wanderings he was accompanied by Penn, Barclay, Keith, and other Quaker leaders. He died in London, 13th November 1690. Fox's own extravagances, especially in his earlier career, and the often grotesque proceedings of some of the recruits from the Ranters, Shakers, and other eccentric sects of the time (see on Nayler at page 623), partly explain the abhorrence with which the Quakers were regarded alike by Churchmen and Nonconformists. This gradually yielded to the essentially shrewd and sober pietism of Fox; but his view of the 'inner light' as more than co-ordinate in authority with the Bible, the Quaker rejection of the sacraments, and suspicion as to their unsoundness on the Trinity (see at Penn, Vol. II. p. 39) maintained the dislike of the orthodox. Baxter and Bunyan were as uncompromisingly hostile as the professional controversialists. Fox had not merely a heart

full of love for his fellows, but a mind capable of instituting systems of registration, poor relief, education, and self-help, which have made the community he founded a social power. His preaching and writings were often mystical, and not seldom turgid and incoherent; in the Journal his style is usually plain and simple, but eloquent and moving.

Fox's work on the use of 'thou' and 'you' has perhaps a peculiar interest for a Cyclopædia of English Literature, inasmuch as by it he sought seriously to modify established usage, and did prevail with his followers for more than two centuries. The arguments from the usage of Amalekites, Hivites, Moabites, Shuhites, &c. are taken straight from the Scripture texts in which personages of these tribes or races are quoted; and the forms of the second personal pronouns, singular and plural, in Hebrew, Arabic, Greek, Latin, French, Manx, &c., are given with tedious superfluity. Fox and his colleagues in this work, John Stubbs and Benjamin Ferrley, fully recognise the rights of the accusative, and do not propose to supersede 'thou' by an ungrammatical use of 'thee.' The following is the first quarter or so of the title of the quaint book, A Battle-Door for Teachers and Professors to learn Singular and Plural, You to many and Thou to one: Singular one, Thou; Plural many, You. Wherein is shewed forth by Grammar or Scripture examples how several Nations and Peoples have made a distinction between Singular and Plural, and so on. The book bears date 1660. In the title it is affirmed, and in the book argued, and in a postscript signed by Fox specially emphasised, that the use of 'you' in speaking to one person, which he so strongly reprobates, was 'set up by the Pope in his pride.'

In Church at Ulverstone.

...

After this [1652] on a lecture-day, I was moved to go to the steeple-house at Ulverstone, where were abundance of professors, priests, and people. and after the Lord had opened my mouth to speak John Sawrey the justice came to me and said if I would speak according to the scriptures I should speak. . . . Then he said I should not speak, contradicting himself who had said just before I should speak if I would speak according to the scriptures, which I did. Now the people were quiet and heard me gladly, until the Justice Sawrey (who was the first stirrer up of cruel persecution in the north) incensed them against me and set them to hale, beat, and bruise me. Then on a sudden the people were in a rage, and fell upon me in the steeple-house before his face, knocked me down, and kicked me, and trampled upon me, he looking on; and so great was the uproar, that some tumbled over their seats for fear. At last he came and took me from the people, led me out of the steeple-house, and put me into the hands of the constables and other officers, bidding them whip me, and put me out of the town. Then they led me about a quarter of a mile, some taking hold of my collar, and some of my arms and shoulders, and shook and dragged me along. And there being many friendly people come to the market, and some of them come to the steeple

house to hear me, divers of these they knocked down also, and broke their heads, so that the blood ran down from several of them; and Judge Fell's son running after to see what they would do with me, they threw him into a ditch of water, some of them crying: Knock the teeth out of his head.' When they had haled me to the common-moss side, a multitude following, the constables and other officers gave me some blows over my back with willow-rods, and so thrust me among the rude multitude, who (having furnished themselves with staves, some with hedge-stakes, and others with holm or holly bushes) fell upon me, and beat me upon my head, arms, and shoulders, till they had amazed me; so that I fell down upon the wet common. And when I recovered my self again, and saw myself lying in a watery common, and the people standing about me, I lay still a little while; and the power of the Lord sprang through me, and the Eternal Refreshings refreshed me, so that I stood up again in the strengthening power of the Eternal God. And stretching out my arms amongst them, I said with a loud voice: 'Strike again! here are my arms, my head, and my cheeks!' . . . Then they began to fall out among themselves.

Interview with Oliver Cromwell.

After Captain Drury had lodged me at the Mermaid [over against the Mews at Charing Cross], he went to give the Protector an account of me. And when he came to me again, he told me the Protector did require that I should promise not to take up a carnal sword or weapon against him or the government, as it then was; and that I should write it in what words I saw good, and set my hand to it. I said little in reply to Captain Drury; but the next morning I was moved of the Lord to write a paper to the Protector, by the name of Oliver Cromwell, wherein I did in the presence of the Lord God declare that I did deny the wearing or drawing of a carnal sword, or any other outward weapon, against him or any man; and that I was sent of God to stand a witness against all violence, and against the works of darkness; and to turn people from darkness to the light, and to bring them from the occasion of war and fighting to the peaceable Gospel, and from being evil-doers, which the magistrates' sword should be a terror to. When I had written what the Lord had given me to write, I set my name to it, and gave it to Captain Drury to give to Oliver Cromwell, which he did. After some time, Captain Drury brought me before the Protector himself at Whitehall; it was in a morning, before he was dressed; and one Harvey, who had come a little among Friends [i.e. the Friends], but was disobedient, waited upon him. When I came in, I was moved to say: Peace be in this house;' and I bid him keep in the fear of God, that he might receive wisdom from him, that by it he might be ordered, and with it might order all things under his hand unto God's glory. I spoke much to him of truth, and a great deal of discourse I had with him about religion; wherein he carried himself very moderately. But he said we quarrelled with priests, whom he called ministers. I told him, I did not quarrel with them, but they quarrelled with me and my friends. said I, if we own the prophets, Christ, and the apostles, we cannot hold up such teachers, prophets, and shepherds as the prophets, Christ, and the apostles declared against ; but we must declare against them by the same power and spirit. Then I shewed him that the prophets, Christ,

But,

and the apostles declared freely, and declared against them that did not declare freely; such as preached for filthy lucre, and divined for money, and preached for hire, and were covetous and greedy, like the dumb dogs that could never have enough; and that they that have the same spirit that Christ, and the prophets, and the apostles had, could not but declare against all such now, as they did then. As I spoke, he would several times say it was very good, and it was truth. I told him, that all Christendom (so called) had the scriptures, but they wanted the power and spirit that those had who gave forth the scriptures, and that was the reason they were not in fellowship with the Son, nor with the Father, nor with the scriptures, nor one with another. Many more words I had with him, but people coming in, I drew a little back; and as I was turning, he catched me by the hand, and with tears in his eyes said: 'Come again to my house, for if thou and I were but an hour of a day together, we should be nearer one to the other;' adding, that he wished me no more ill than he did to his own soul. I told him if he did he wronged his own soul, and I bid him hearken to God's voice, that he might stand in his counsel, and obey it; and if he did so, that would keep him from hardness of heart; but if he did not hear God's voice, his heart would be hardened. And he said it was true. Then I went out; and when Captain Drury came out after me, he told me his lord Protector said I was at liberty, and might go whither I would. Then I was brought into a great hall, where the Protector's gentlemen were to dine. And I asked them what they brought me hither for. They said it was by the Protector's order, that I might dine with them.

I

bid them let the Protector know I would not eat a bit of his bread, nor drink a sup of his drink. When he heard this he said: "Now I see there is a people risen and come up that I cannot win, either with gifts, honours, offices, or places; but all other sects and people I can.' It was told him again, that we had forsook our own, and were not like to look for such things from him.

In 1656, in Hyde Park, Fox 'espyed the Protector coming in his coach. Whereupon I rode up to his coach-side; and some of his life-guard would have put me away, but he forbade them. So I rode down by his coach-side with him, declaring what the Lord gave me to say unto him of the condition and of the suffering of friends in the nation; shewing him how contrary this was to Christ's word and his apostles, and to Christianity. When we were come to James's Park gate, I left him, and at parting he desired me to come to his house.' He had a brief meeting with Cromwell very shortly before the Protector's death, described in a passage on which Carlyle founded a famous apostrophe:

The same day, taking boat, I went down [really up] to Kingston, and from thence to Hampton Court, to speak with the Protector about the sufferings of friends. I met him riding into Hampton Court Park, and before I came at him, as he rode at the head of his life-guard, I saw and felt a waft (whiff, omen) of death go forth against him. . . . And when I came to him he looked like a dead man. After I had laid the sufferings of friends before him, and had warned him according as I was

moved to speak to him, he bid me come to his house. So I returned to Kingston, and the next day went up to Hampton Court to have spoken further with him. But when I came, he was sick, and Harvey, who was one that waited on him, told me the doctors were not willing that I should come in to speak with him. So I passed away, and never saw him any more.

The principal writings of George Fox, less frequently referred to as authorities on doctrine than Penn's and Barclay's (see Vol. II. pp. 38 and 41), are comprised in three folio volumes, printed respectively in 1694, 1698, and 1706. The first contains his Journal (reprinted 1885); the second, his Epistles; the third, his Gospel Truth, a collection of Doctrinal Books. A fourth folio (1659) contains The Great Mistery. But the list of Fox's works, many of them pamphlets, occupies fifty-three pages of Joseph Smith's Catalogue of Friends' Books (1868). See Lives by Marsh (1848), Janney (Phila. 1853), Watson (1860), Bickley (1884), Budge (1893), and especially Hodgkin (1896).

John Bunyan,

author of the Pilgrim's Progress, was born at Elstow, near Bedford, in 1628. By universal assent the 'inspired tinker' is ranked with our English classics and great masters of allegory; his masterpiece was one of the few books Dr Johnson wished had been longer; and yet, so late as 1782, Cowper dared not name him in his poetry lest the name should provoke a sneer. According to the transcript registers from the parish of Elstow, Bunyan's father, who described himself as a 'braseyer,' married Margaret Bentley on the 23rd of May 1627, and on the 30th of November 1628 their illustrious son was baptised at Elstow church. In his seventeenth year John Bunyan, who was bred to his father's trade, was-doubtless under a levy made by Parliament upon the villages of Bedfordshire-drafted into the army, and took part in the civil war between Roundhead and Royalist. It has lately been ascertained that he served in the garrison at Newport-Pagnell for two and a half years (1644-47), under the commander assumed to be the original of Butler's Hudibras, Sir Samuel Luke (see page 735). On the disbanding of the army Bunyan returned to Elstow, and about 1649 married a wife who brought him no dower of worldly wealth, for, as he put it, 'this woman and I came together as poor as poor might be, not having so much household stuff as a dish or spoon betwixt us both.' She brought with her, however, two books which had belonged to her father, the Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven and the Practice of Piety, in which they read together, and by which Bunyan was observably influenced. His Life and Death of Mr Badman, published in 1680, shows not a little resemblance to the first of these books. Now it was-in the years when he took a lively delight in ringing the bells of Elstow church-that he passed through the deep religious experiences so vividly described in Grace Abounding. There is no reason to believe that at any time Bunyan led a vicious or depraved life, or was what Southey said he was-a blackguard. Rather he seems always to have been well disposed and tender in conscience, though careless and addicted, like his neighbours, to the customary

English habit of swearing rather freely. A sincere religious enthusiast applies a severe standard to his own past life.

Dr Brown of Bedford strongly disapproves Sir Walter Scott's suggestion that, as tinkers were often Gypsies, the poet-apostle of the English middle classes,' as Mr Froude has called him, may have been of Gypsy race; there were Bonyons or Buingnons in Bedfordshire in the twelfth century, and the name is found in thirty different spellings. On the other hand, it has been shown that there was at least one 'Egyptian rogue' of the name of Bownian in Cornwall in 1586; but the theory of Gypsy origin is at most a speculation.

The young Bedford brazier was introduced by some Puritan friends to their minister, John Gifford, a converted royalist major who had organised a little community sometimes incorrectly described as a Baptist church, it being a church in which baptism and some other questions much debated in those days were left to the individual conscience, and not made an essential part of church life. Bunyan joined this Christian fellowship in 1653, and about 1655 he was asked by the brethren to address them in their church gatherings. This led to his beginning to preach in the villages round Bedford, and in 1656 he was brought into discussions with the followers of George Fox; this again moved him to authorship, his first book, Some Gospel Truths Opened, being published against the Quakers in 1656. That earliest effort of his pen, though rapidly but vigorously written, is altogether remarkable as the composition of a working-man whose schooldays had become a faroff memory. To it Edward Burrough, an eminent Quaker, replied, and Bunyan made rejoinder in A Vindication of Gospel Truths Opened. Two other works were published by him ere, in November 1660, he was arrested while preaching in a farmhouse at Samsell, a small hamlet a little to the south of Ampthill, in Bedfordshire. The imprisonment which followed upon this arrest lasted for twelve long years, during which Bunyan wrote Profitable Meditations, Praying in the Spirit, Christian Behaviour, The Holy City, The Resurrection of the Dead, Grace Abounding, and some smaller works. The place of incarceration was the county jail, which stood at the corner of the High Street and Silver Street, in the centre of the town of Bedford. The prisoner for conscience' sake was released after the Declaration of Indulgence of 1672, under which he became a licensed preacher, having been chosen by the church to which he belonged as their pastor. He had held this office for three years when in February 1675 the Declaration of Indulgence was cancelled and the licenses of the Nonconformist preachers recalled by proclamation. The following month a warrant was issued for his arrest, signed by no fewer than thirteen magistrates, and sealed by ten of them-a document which came to light in 1887 when the Chauncy MSS. came to the hammer at Sotheby's.

Brought to trial at the midsummer sessions under the Conventicle Act, Bunyan was sent to prison for six months in the town jail on Bedford Bridge. It was during this later and briefer imprisonment that he wrote the first part of his memorable Pilgrim's Progress-entered in the register of the Stationers' Company on 22nd December 1677, and licensed 18th February 1678. When first issued it was shorter than in its final form-it then contained no Mr Worldly Wiseman and no second meeting with Evangelist. The discourse with Charity at the Palace Beautiful, the further accounts of Mr By-ends' rich relations, the story of Diffidence, the wife of Giant Despair, with other not unimportant passages, were added in the second and third editions (1678 and 1679). This was followed by the Life and Death of Mr Badman in 1680, containing, as Mr Froude said, a vivid picture of rough English life in the days of Charles II.; by the Holy War, his most notable work after the Pilgrim's Progress, in 1682; and by the second part of the Pilgrim, containing the story of Christiana and her children, in 1684. Bunyan had been pastor of the Bedford church for sixteen years, when, after a ride through the rain on horseback from Reading to London, he was seized with a fatal illness at the house of his friend, John Strudwick, a grocer at the sign of the Star on Snow Hill, Holborn, and here he died on the 31st of August 1688, and was buried in Bunhill Fields, the Nonconformist Campo Santo.

It

During the sixty years of his life Bunyan wrote something like sixty books, but he will be best remembered by three of these-the Grace Abounding, the Holy War, and the Pilgrim's Progress, and best of all by the last of the three. Grace Abounding Macaulay describes as one of the most remarkable pieces of autobiography in the world; the Holy War is an allegory of the struggle between God and the devil for man's soul-an allegory vastly less fully realised and visualised than the opus magnum. The Pilgrim's Progress sprang at once into fame, 100,000 copies being sold during the subsequent ten years of its author's life. was also printed at Boston, in New England, in 1681; a Dutch translation was issued at Amsterdam in 1682, and both this and a handsomer edition of 1685 were illustrated by Dutch engravers, then the leaders of the art of engraving in Europe. The book was also translated into Welsh, Walloon, French, German, Polish, and Swedish between 1688 and 1743. Since then it has been translated into about a hundred languages and dialects, the versions in Japanese and the Canton vernacular being admirably illustrated by native artists, who have adapted scenery and costumes to Chinese conditions.

When in 1830 Southey's edition of the Pilgrim's Progress appeared, with a Life of Bunyan, Macaulay -not a very likely person to appreciate the religious power of the book, its value as a manual of devotional thought, its vivid realisation of the sense of sin and of absolute need for supernatural re