This then, if any body has thought worth while to follow it, appears to let into the whole secret of the good and evil of machinery. It is a good to every body, working classes included, if only it does not come so rapidly as to throw great masses of people out of em ployment, faster than the consequent de mand for hands in other branches can take them up. If the community in general by dint of machinery get a piece of clothf or six shillings instead of ten, they will to a certainty expend it in something else that they would not have expended it in before; -unless it can be proved that they will throw it into the sea. If therefore there is a diminution of employment for cloth-makers to the amount of four shillings (which is undeniably the case), there is at the same time an increase of expenditure on some other arts and crafts to the same amount. But if other arts and crafts are affected in a like manner by machinery, each of these throws an increase of expenditure on some others, among which the craft of cloth-making will undoubtedly have a share. And if wages fall when employment is diminished, they rise when it is increased. So that provided the introduction of machinery be gradual and general, there is an evident tendency towards a balance; and though nobody can say that the balance shall be so complete as to leave every thing exactly as before, it is plain that the final alteration is the difference of the particular alterations, and not the sum. But all this time, there is a clear gain to the cousumers at every step, of the whole amount of what is saved in each instance by machinery,—or what in the case of the cloth was represented by four shillings. So that while the effects up on the different operatives, in respect of their quantity of employment, go on balancing and counteracting each other, and are in the end next to none at all,—the gains of the consumers (of whom the operatives make part) go on increasing and accumulating by every particular addition. Or to turn the subject the other side up, if machinery of all kinds in all places could be annihilated by an act of Parliament or a thunderbolt, the quantity of employment for operatives would on the whole be just what it is now ; but the operatives would take their share, with every body else, of the consequences of cloth being made with fingers instead of with a loom. That is, they would wear just so much cloth, and of such quality, as could be made with fingers by the exertion of the same time and labour which make what they now wear from the loom; and the same in other things. And note further, that this includes only the home trade. But if ever foreign commerce should cease to be prohibited by Act of

Parliament, then there must be taken into the account the good things that might be obtained from foreigners in exchange for products of machinery, and the share which the operatives would have in these good things by dint of the increased employment which would be created by the demand for manufactured goods. The blunder therefore of desiring to put down machinery, is in the main and in the long run the same as the contemptible fallacy of restrictions upon trade, which is pressed upon the op eratives by the supporters of the Corn Laws. The apparent gain made at every step of restriction either on trade or on machinery, is balanced by an equal loss to some other portion of the industrious classes somewhere else, and there is a clear unbalanced loss of the amount in question to the consumer in the aggregate besides. But the operatives are to be persuaded, that if John, Thomas, Richard, and Henry, get sixpence each, by at the same time taking two pence out of the pockets of each of the other three, John, Thomas, Richard, and Henry make a gain; and not only this, but they do so if John, Thomas, Richard, and Henry, in their quality of consumers, lose another sixpence among them every time besides. This is the sum and substance of the system that calls itself protection to trade. It is a plan to set every body to rob the rest, and count the plunder as a general gain.

Machinery like the rain of heaven, is a present blessing to all concerned, provided it comes down in drops, and not by tons together, and any thing which prevents its free and expanded operation, has an effect of the same kind as would be produced if the rain could be collected into waterspouts. It remains therefore to be seen, what laws and human institutions have done towards securing the free diffusion of the advantages derivable from God's gift_of iugenuity to man. And here the first thing apparent in our own country is, that the aristocracy have made a law, that no use shall be derived from it at all. They have determined by Act of Parliament, that men may invent as many machines as they think proper, but shall not be allowed to sell the produce; or which comes to the same thing shall not be allow ed to sell for what is wanted in return. The whole misery about machinery,—every atom and fragment of suffering alarm, and wretchedness directly or indirectly conse. quent thereon,—are the pure and necessary result of the gross fraud and half-witted cruelty perpetrated by the majority of the landlords upon the rest of their own order, and of the community.—Westminster Review.

The return of the comet in our own days ought to take place in the year 1834; but it is possible that it may be so influenced by Saturn and Uranus, as not to make its appearance before 1835, or even 1836. Numberless calculations have already been formed on this event; and we must leave it to time to pronounce which of them are correct. Neither can we predetermine what will be the degree of its brilliancy, or the extent and splendour of its tail; these are matters which seem to depend on circumstances beyond the sphere of our present knowledge.

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The Spiral Vessels in Plants-The fol lowing remarks, respecting the spiral vessels in plants, were read in a very interesting paper at a recent meeting of the Horticultural Society :- -"The spiral vessels of plants may act mechanically as springs, for their elasticity is prodigious. They exist in almost all plants, and the peculiarity of their structure, which close ly resembles the coiled spring of a bell wire, argues strongly that they have other functions allotted to them than that of merely conducting the sap. If, indeed, they are appendages to the sap-vessels— if they wrap round and enclose, or are themselves placed internally within the membranous coat of those vessels (and the author is much inclined to believe that they are so, for the closest observation of the vessels of the flower-stalk of the wild hyacinth, scilla nutans, convinced him that the spiral coil is by no means closely compressed, but is apparently en

closed, or encloses a fine filmy membrane); if this be the case, then these spiral vessels may be most efficient mechanical agents in propelling the sap upwards. The pliancy of trees, the readiness with which they recover their upright position, are facts strongly corroborating the idea that they contain internal springs, which, like coils of bell wire, are capable of re ceiving and supporting motion in every direction, without offering impediments or sustaining injury."

Acoustic Chair.-The science of acoustics, in a practical point of view, has been strangely neglected in this country, and; in fact, in modern times generally. The ancients appear to have been better acquainted with the doctrine of sounds, and to have applied it to more useful purposes, than ourselves; for we learn that Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, had a cavern excavated in a rock, in the shape best adapted for the reception and trans of the human ear (which is, of course, mission of sounds), in which he confined his state prisoners, and by tubes leading from it to his chamber, he was able to catch even their softest whisper, and thus to discover their designs, &c. This idea seems to have been lost sight of till now, when we are agreeably surprised to find that Mr. Curtis, the well-known aurist, Iras invented a chair, with an acoustic barrel and tabes, something on the prin ciple of the luvisible Girl, for the benefit of the deaf, and for old persons who are hard of hearing, and who, while sitting in it at their leisure, may liear conversation or reading in a low tone of voice, carried on by an individual in any part of the room. By means of pipes, also, a person whispering in a distant apartment can be distinctly heard. We have ourselves been seated in it, and were astonished at the ease with which we distinguished the different voices of those engaged in conversation in an under tone, and also a tune played by a small musical box (which was as audible as if it had been standing on a table before us), in a room separated by a hall, &c., from the one in which the chair is placed. Upon the whole, we consider this invention as one of the most ingenions applications of the principles of acoustics with which we are acquainted. —Literary Gazette.

Dew. The annual average quantity of dew deposited in this country is estimated at a depth of about five inches, being about one-seventh of the mean quantity of moisture supposed to be received from the atmosphere over all Great Britain, in the year; or about 22,161,337,355 tons, taking the ton at two hundred and fifty-two im perial gollons. Ibid.

Polish Galantry.-In former times in Poland, it was customary in the chateaux of the nobility, after banquets given on great occasions, for the host to show his guests his skill in firing a pistol, by making the heel of the shoe on his wife's foot his target! I could hardly convince myself that the higher classes among the Poles, who have always considered devotedness to the fair sex the glory of ours, should have suffered a practice so directly at variance with every feeling of common humanity, to prevail among them-those men, whose notions of galantry in the present day are apt to carry them to so ex travagant enthusiasm, that I have seen them at table take the shoe off the foot of the mistress of the house, drink wine out of it, and pass it round!-Journal of a Nobleman.

Crusade of Children.-The spirit of an age may be indicated by the turn of the infantine mind; in a country engaged in a popular war, the children will always be found playing at soldiers. The religious duty of the Crusades had taken such universal hold of men's minds, that it produced a movement among the children of Europe, of a kind unparalleled in the history of the world. In the year 1212, many thousands of boys and girls abandoned their houses, not only in France, but in Germany and Italy, giving out that they were bent upon delivering the Holy Land. It was in vain that their parents attempted to restrain them. They watched opportunities of escape, and got away by making holes in the walls; and sallied forth from the paternal mansion with as much joy as if they had been going to a festival. The fate of these unhappy children,as may be supposed, was most unfortunate; they were entrapped in numbers by merchants of Venice, Genoa, and Marseilles, who were at that time engaged in the infamous traffic of supplying the seraglios of the east with children. A great many were shipped in the Mediterranean ports, and many died of hunger and fatigue in the long journeys to which they had voluntarily devoted themselves, but for which their strength was utterly inadequate. Foreign Quarterly Review.

Heat.-The most striking and important of the effects of heat consist in the liqui faction of solid substances, and the conversion of the liquids so produced into vapour. There is no solid substance known, which, by a sufficiently intense heat, may not be melted, and finally dissipated in vapour; and this analogy is so extensive and cogent, that we cannot but suppose that all those bodies which are liquid under ordinary circumstances, owe their liquidity to heat, and would

freeze or become solid, if their heat could be sufficiently reduced. In many we see this to be the case in ordinary winters; for some, severe frosts are requisite ; others freeze only with the most intense artificial colds; and some have hitherto resisted all our endeavours; yet the num ber of these last is few; and they will probably cease to be exceptions, as our means of producing cold become enlarged. Lardner's Cyclopedia.

Singular Death.-In January, 1777, died John Ross, LL. D., professor of languages in the King's University of Aberdeen. His death was occasioned by swallowing a spider in a glass of claret. Upon dissection, his stomach was found to be much ulcerated, and distended beyond the usual size.

Substitute for Milk or Cream.-Where milk or cream cannot be obtained, it is an excellent substitute to beat up the whole of a fresh-egg in a bason, and then gradually to pour boiling tea over it, to prevent its curdling. It is difficult from the taste to distinguish the composition from tea and rich cream, and the flavour is far superior to that of tea with mere milk. We speak from experience. This might be of great nse at sea, as eggs may be preserved fresh in many ways.-Scientific Gazette.

Society Islands.-It is a curions fact, that nearly all of the Society Islands at the present time are governed by women. These ladies each preside at the debates of their chiefs on the state affairs of their island, and take an active part in them. The meetings are open to all the natives, and whether of high or low degree, any one is allowed to give his opinion on the subject in question. When a measure is decided on, it is promulgated as a law from the chapels which have been built since the visit of the missionaries to the islands. In these debates the women generally evince mental qualities superior to the men, and also surpass them in their attainments at the missionaries' schools, Since the establishment of the missionaries on the islands, the condition of the women has undergone a great change; from a state of abject slavery and misery they have become comparatively free and happy; and the first object of the natives on visiting a ship newly arrived, is to procure a bonnet or some such article for their wives, their own wants being a secondary consideration.-Athenæum.

Leeches.-There is good evidence for be lieving, that the impression of the atmospheric electricity causes the blood of leeches to coagulate. They may be regarded, therefore, as a sure barometer.

POLAND, PAST AND PRESENT.†

POLAND in the beginning of the eighteenth century was one of the largest kingdoms of Europe. It was divided into four grand districts.-1, Great Poland, bordered by Lithuania, Silesia, and Pomerania-2. Little Poland, bordered by Great Poland, Silesia, Hungary, and Red Russia-3. Royal Prussia, lying to the north-east of Great Poland, and bordered by Pomerania, and Ducal Prussia, which formerly belonged to Poland,-4. Red Russia, bordered on the east by the Dnieper, on the south by the Dneister and the Crapack Mountains, on the north by part of Lithuania, and on the west by Little Poland. In addition to those was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, rather an allied principality than a portion of the kingdom, The Duchy furnished one-third of the troops composing the army of the crown, and one quarter of the money granted for the support of the monarch, The Duchy of Courland also was under the protection of Poland.

The first mention of this people in modern history is in the year 550, when they formed a government, under Leck, bro ther of Cracus, or Creck, first Duke of Bohemia, who collected the tribes, and founded a castle, or centre of a city. In this operation one of those omens occurred which paganism always looked on as the voice of fate; the workmen found an eagle's nest in the wood which they were clearing away for the site of the fortress. The nest was called, in Sclavonic, gniazdo; from this the new city was named Gnesua; and the eagle was transferred to the banner of Poland.

The history of all the Gothic tribes is the same.

Their first state is that of scat tered families; their second, that of a tribe under a military chieftain, elected by the suffrages of the people. The chieftain be comes a tyrant, or transmits his power to a feeble successor. The people then dethrone the race, break up the tyranny, and come back to the old system of free election.

The descendents of Leck reigned a hundred years; but the dynasty was then subverted, and provincial military chief tains were substituted for it. Twelve governors entitled Palatines or Waiwodes (generals, from Woing war, and Wodz a chief), were created. But their violences disgusted the people; and one of them, Cracus, whose conduct was au exception, was raised to the throne by the elective

voice of the nation. In some years after his death his family were displaced by the Palatines, and a civil war followed. The Hungarians took this opportunity to ravage Poland, in A. D. 751; but a peasant, Przemyslas, saved his country. Collecting together the broken forces of Poland, he approached the Hungarian camp as if with the intention of offering battle. With his barbarian courage, he mingled civilized ingenuity; he fixed branches of trees on a conspicuous point of ground, which he intermixed with armed men, so ranged as to give the appearance of a large force, in order of battle. As soon as day broke, and the Hungarians perceived, as they thought, their enemy defying them to the encounter, they rushed on them with con temptuous rashness. But the Polish post retired, exhibiting what, to the astonished Hungarians, seemed a forest suddenly plucked up and moving away. Yet the view of the Polish flight overcame the terror at the spectacle. The Hungarians rushed on, until they found themselves inevitably intangled in a real forest. The Polish leader now charged, totally routed the enemy, and left not a man to tell the tale. But their camp still stood. Here too his ingenuity was exerted. He dexterously clothed his men in the dresses of the dead; divided his troops into small bodies, and sent them towards various avennes of the camp, as if they were Hun garians returned from the battle. The stratagem succeeded, the Poles were suffered freely to enter the Hungarian camp; once within the rampart they drew their sabres,-fell on their unprepared enemy, and slaughtered the whole remaining multitude, with the exception of a few fugitives, who escaped on the first onset, and who served the Polish cause most effectually by spreading the fame and terror of the national arms through all the countries on the Baltic. The con queror could now have no competitor at home, and he was soon after chosen Duke of Poland.

On his death the Palatines, those ceaseless disturbers, were again in arms, each struggling for the crown. To prevent the usual effusion of blood, an expedient was adopted which displays the Tartar origin of the people. The crown was to be the prize of a trial of speed on horseback. The trial was open to the whole body of the youth. On the day appointed, a multitude of gallant horsemen appeared; but soon after starting, many of their horses fell lame; to the astonishment of the spec tators more were lamed every moment. Two alone at length contended for the prize; the whole multitude of riders had fallen behind, with their chargers broken