546. Concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting, and touching, were origi. nally present participles active, of transitive verbs, and as such required an objec tive case after them (801). They may frequently be so construed still. During may be regarded as originally the present participle active, of an intransitive verb, hav. ing the noun or pronoun in the nominative case absolute (769); thus, "During life," means life during, or while life endures. Notwithstanding, a compound of not, and the present participle withstanding, may be explained in the same way. Still, when used as a preposition, the word following must be regarded in the objective case (818).

547. Except and save were originally imperatives. Out of may be regarded either as two words-an adverb and preposition-or as one word, forming a sort of compound preposition. Of this character are the following: From between, from beyond, from within, from without, over against, and the like. Off is, for the most part, an adverb, and means at a distance; as, "Far off." With a noun or pronoun following, it is a preposition, and means not on. from, &c.; as, “Off the table."

548. The prefix a in the sense of at, in, on, &c., seems to have the force of a preposition in such expressions as a reading, a running, a going, a hunting, &c. (190), and may be parsed as such.

549. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, should not be regarded as a preposition, but as a sort of verbal prefix belonging to the form of the verb in that part.

550. When a preposition has not an object, it becomes an adverb; as, " He rides about." But in such phrases as cast up, hold out, fall on, &c., up, out, on, should be considered as a part of the verb to which they are joined, rather than as prepositions or adverbs.

551. Several words in the preceding list are used sometimes as prepositions and sometimes as other parts of speech; thus, till, until, after, before, &c., are frequently adverbs. But and save, followed by the objective case, are used as prepositions; followed by a nominative, as conjunctions. For and since are also used as conjunctions.

552. All words used as prepositions are followed by an objective case, and may by this be distinguished from other words.

PARSING.

553. A preposition is parsed by stating what part of speech, and between what words it shows the relation; thus, "The waters of Jordan." Of is a preposition, and shows the relation between Jordan and waters.

Here Jordan is the regimen of the preposition of; of Jordan is the adjunct of waters; and waters is the principal to which the adjunct belongs.

554. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISES.

When I say, "The book is on the table," what word shows the relation of book to the table? What part of speech are words that show the relation between nouns or pronouns, and other words in the sentence? Then what part of speech is on? Could the book be in any other relation to the table than on it? It might be off the table, above the table, under the table, beside the table, &c. Then what part of speech are off, above, under, beside? Why? When we say, "They live in the country," what word shows the relation between country and live? Then what part of speech is in?

EXERCISES.

In the following sentences, point out the preposition, and the words between which it shows the relation. Name the adjunct and principal. In what sentences has the principal more than one adjunct?—in what, a compound adjunct?

In

He went from Boston. He went to Washington. He went from Boston to Washington. We reside in the country. All rivers flow into the sea. He his book to me. gave He gave [to] me his book. Flowers bloom in summer. summer flowers bloom. He gave part of his dinner to a poor man in the street. He was travelling toward Rome when we met him at Milan, without a single attendant. Be kind one to another. The love of money is the root of all evil. Do good to all men. Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good. For his gallant conduct in rescuing so many from a watery grave, he was highly honored.

2. In the preceding exercise, parse each word in order as directed. p. 103. ard Nos. 537 and 553.

INTERJECTIONS.

555. An INTERJECTION is a word used in exclamations, to express an emotion of the mind; as, "Oh! what a fall was there!"

556. The Interjection is so called, because it is, as it were, thrown in among the words of a sentence, without any grammatical connection with them. Some times it stands at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes it stands alone, as if the emotion were too strong to admit of other words being spoken.

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS.

557. The following is a list of the interjections most commonly nsed. They express various kinds of emotion, but in so vague and indefinite a way, as not to admit of accurate classification:

Ah! alas! O! oh! ha! fudge! tush! pshaw! poh! pugh! fie! avaunt! ho! holla! aha! hurrah! huzza! bravo! hist! hush' heigho! heyday! hail! lo! welcome! halloo! adieu! &c.

558. Also some words belonging to other parts of speech, when uttered in an nnconnected and forcible manner, to express emotion, are called interjections; as, nonsense! strange! wonderful! shocking! what! behold! off! away! hark! come! well done! welcome! &c.

559. O is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be prefixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address; as, " O Virtue! how amiable thou art!" Oh is used detached from the word, with a point of exclamation after it, or after the next word. It implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise: as, “ Oh! what a sight is here!"

PARSING.

560. An interjection is parsed by stating the part of speech, why, and the emotion expressed; as, "Oh! what

a sight is here!" Oh-an interjection, because used as

an exclamation, and expresses an emotion of pain.

CONJUNCTIONS.

561. A CONJUNCTION is a word which connects words or sentences; as, "He and I must go; but you may stay."

562. Here, and connects the words He and I, and but connects the sentences, "He and I must go", and," you may stay."

563. Conjunctions sometimes begin sentences, even after a full period, to show a connection between sentences in the general tenor of discourse. See, as examples, the first chapter of Genesis.

564. Conjunctions are divided into two classes: Copulative and Disjunctive.

565. Copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be consid

ered together. They are, and, both, as, because, for, if, since, that.

566. And is the principal copulative, and connects what follows as an addition to that which precedes. The others connect what follows as a condition, supposition, cause, motive, &c.

567. Both is an antecedent conjunction, related to and. When used, it precedes the first of the words or sentences connected by and, to make the connection more emphatic.

568. Disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be consid ered separately. The leading disjunctives are, or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, notwithstanding, save, provided, whereas.

569. Or and nor are the principal disjunctives. Or connects words and sentences in such a way as to show that what follows is not added to, but is the alternate of, that which precedes. The other disjunctives connect what follows as a concession or doubt, or as something opposed to what goes before.

570. Either and neither are antecedent conjunctions, related to o and nor respectively. When used, they precede the first of the words or sentences connected by or or nor, to render them more emphatic.

571. Therefore and wherefore, sometimes called conjunctions, are more properly adverbs (533).

PARSING.

572. A conjunction is parsed by stating the part of speech, its class, and the words or sentences which it connects; as, "He and I must go; but you may stay."

And-a copulative conjunction, and connects the words He and I. But—a disjunctive conjunction, and connects the sentences, “He and I must go," and "you may stay."

573. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISES.

When we say, "John and James study," what word connects John and James? What class of words connects words and sentences? What part of speech is and? In the sentence, "John reads and writes," what does and connect? What does and connect in the following phrases, "A red and white rose"-" A red rose and a white rose"-" Well and truly said"? What conjunction connects the following sentences, "They are happy, because they are good"? Here the following facts may be noticed (946, &c.) :

1. When two nouns or pronouns are connected, they are in the same case, and in the same construction.

2. When two verbs are connected, they have the same subject; as, “James reads and writes."

3. When two adjectives are connected, they qualify the same noun or pronoun. 4. When two adverbs are connected, they modify the same word.

5. When conjunctions connect sentences, they do not connect individual words in the sentence. Thus, "They are happy, because they are good," the conjunction does not connect they with they, nor are with are, nor happy with good; but, "They are happy," with "they are good." So also when they connect phrases: "He spoke to James and to me”—“ Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things."

EXERCISES ON CONJUNCTIONS.

1. In the following sentences, point out the conjunctions, and state what words, or sentences, or phrases, they connect. Sometimes the order is so inverted, that the conjunctive clause stands first.

2. Parse the words in their order.

Two and two

Time and tide wait for no man. The evening and the morning were the first day. The memory of the just is blessed, but the name of the wicked shall rot. If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small. make four. George or John will go. They will succeed because they are industrious. Because they are industrious they will succeed. Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. Of making many books there is no end, and much study is a weariness to the flesh.

PARSING.

574. PARSING is the resolving of a sentence into its elements or parts of speech.

575. Words may be parsed in two ways: Etymologically, and Syntactically.

1. Etymological parsing consists in stating the parts of speech to which each word in a sentence belongs, its uses and accidents, its inflection, and changes, and derivation.

2. Syntactical parsing adds to the above a statement of the relation in which the words stand to each other, and the rules according to which they are combined in phrases and sentences.