5. Definitive, which do not express any property of an object, but merely point it out, or limit in various ways the meaning of the noun. To this class belong such words as this, that, each, every, some, both, &c. These sometimes accompany the noun, and sometimes refer to it understood, or stand instead of it, after the manner of pronouns, and hence are sometimes called Pronominal adjectives, and sometimes Adjective pronouns. (See 289.) 203. This classification of adjectives, however, is of but little practical use, as adjectives of all classes are used in the same way. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 204. Adjectives expressing number are called Numeral adjectives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and Ordinal. 205. The Cardinal numbers indicate how many; they are one, two, three, four, &c. 206. The Ordinal numbers indicate which one of a number; they are first, second, third, &c. In compound numbers, the last only has the ordinal form; as, twenty-FIRST; two hundred and fifty-THIRD, &c. 207. Numeral adjectives, being also names of numbers, are often used as nouns, and so have the inflection and construction of nouns : thus, by twos, by tens, by fifties. For ten's sake, for twenty's sake. One and one are two. Two is an even number. Five is the half of ten. Three fives ARE fifteen. Fifteen is divisible by three. Twice two is four.* Four is equal to twice two. Three fourths. 208. Adjectives in English are indeclinable. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 209. Most common and participial adjectives have three forms, called degrees of comparison; namely, Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. * In some arithmetics the language employed in the operation of multiplyingsuch as "Twice two are four, twice three are six"-is incorrect. It should be, "Twice two is four," &c.; for the word two is used as a singular noun-the name of a number. The adverb "twice" is not in construction with it, and consequently does not make it plural. The meaning is, "The number two taken twice is equal to four." For the same reason we should say, "Three times two is six," because the meaning is, "Two taken three times is six." If we say, "Three times one are three," we make "times" the subject of the verb, whereas the subject of the verb really is "one," and "times" is in the objective of number (828). 2:4:: 6:12, should be read, "As 2 is to 4, so is 6 to 12;" not "Asvo are to four, so are," &c. But when numerals denoting more than one, are used as adjectives, with a substan tive expressed or understood, they must have a plural construction. 210. The Positive expresses a quality simply; as, "Gold is heavy.” 211. The Comparative expresses a quality in a higher degree in one object than in another, or in several taken together; as, "Gold is heavier than silver." "He is wiser than his teachers." 212. The Superlative expresses a quality in one object in the highest degree compared with several others; as, "Gold is the most precious of the metals." 213. REMARK.-The superlative degree, when made by prefixing the adverb most, is often used to express a very high degree of a quality in an object, without Thus directly comparing it with others; as, "He is a most distinguished man." used, it is called the superlative of eminence, and commonly has a or an before it, if the noun is singular; or it is without an article, if the noun is plural. thing is expressed by prefixing the adverb very, exceedingly, &c.; as, tinguished man." The superlative of comparison commonly has the before it. RULES FOR COMPARISON. The same dis a very 214. RULE 1. Adjectives of one syllable form the comparative by adding er to the positive, and the superlative by adding est; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest. Words ending in e mute, drop e before er and est; as, large. larger, largest. (68.) 215. RULE 2. Adjectives of more than one syllable,are commonly compared by prefixing more and most to the positive; as, numerous, more numerous, most numerous. 216. REMARK.-Though this rule indicates the prevailing usage, yet adjectives of two syllables are not unfrequently compared by er and est; as, "Our tenderest cares;" "The commonest materials." Dissyliables in le and y are generally compared in this way; as able, abler, ablest. All adjectives in y after a consonant, change y into i before er and est; as, dry, drier, driest; happy, happier, happiest (57); but y after a vowel is not changed; as, gay, gayer, gayest. 217. A lower degree of a quality in one object compared with another, and the lowest compared with several others, is expressed by prefixing less and least to the positive; as, sweet, less sweet, least sweet. This, by way of distinction, is sometimes called the compar. ison of diminution, or comparison descending. 218. The meaning of the positive is sometimes diminished without employing comparison, by annexing the syllable ish; as, white, whitish; black, blackish These may be called diminutive adjectives. So also various shades, degrees, or modifications of quality are frequently expressed by connecting with the adjective such words as rather, somewhat, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, &c., and, in the comparative and superlative, by such words as much, far, altogether, by far, &c 219. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, &c., though derived from Latin comparatives, and involving the idea of comparison, are not considered the comparative degree in English, any more than such words as preferable, previous, &c. They have neither the form nor the construction of the comparative (963–2). 221. Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to things that are numbered; more and most, to both. Farther and farthest generally denote place or distance; as, "The farther they went, the . more interesting was the scene ;" further and furthest refer to quantity or addition; as, "I have nothing further to say." Older and oldest are applied to persons or things, and refer to age or duration; as, "Homer is an older poet than Virgil;" “The pyramids are older than the pantheon." Elder and eldest (from the obsolete eld) are applied only to persons of the same family, and denote priority of birth; as, "An elder brother." Later and latest have respect to time; latter and last, to position or order. 222. Some superlatives are formed by annexing most, sometimes to the comparative, and sometimes to the word from which the comparative is formed; as, upper, uppermost or upmost, from up; nether, nelḥermost; inner, innermost, or inmost, from in; hinder, hindermost, or hindmost, from hind; outer, outermost, or utmost, from out. ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED. 223. Adjectives whose signification does not adınit of increase or diminution, can not properly be compared. These are 1. Numerals; as, one, two; third, fourth, &c. 2. Proper adjectives; as, English, American, Roman. 3. Adjectives that denote figure, shape, or material; as circular, square, wooden, &c. 4. Such adjectives as denote posture or position; as, perpendicular, horizontal. 5. Definitives; as, each, every, all, some, &c. 6. Adjectives of an absolute or superlative signification; as, true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, infinite, complete. 224. REMARK. Of these last, however, comparative and superlative forms are sometimes used, either to give greater force to the expression, or when the words are used in a sense not strictly absolute or superlative. The following are examples: Extreme." The extremest of evils."-Bacon. "The extremest verge.”—Shaks. "First and chiefest."—-Milton. Chiefest courtier."-Shaks. Perfect." Having more perfect knowledge of that way," i. e., knowledge nearer to perfection.-Bible. So, "The most perfect society."-E. Everett. "Less perfect imitations."-Macaulay. More complete, most complete, less complete, are common. 225. PARSING. In parsing an adjective fully: 1. State its class. 2. Compare, if admitting comparison (209), and if not compared, so state it. 3. Tell its degree of comparison, if compared. 4. The noun which it qualifies. Do this always in the same order, and in the fewest words possible. EXAMPLES. "A wise son maketh a glad father.”—“ Wisdom is more precious than rubies." '—“The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit, than seven men that can render a reason.". Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord."-" Blessed are the pure in heart." 111 Wise is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and qualifies son. Glad is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and qualifies father. More precious is a common adjective, compared by more and most, compara. tive, and qualifies wisdom. Wiser is a common adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, and quali fies sluggard. Seven is a numeral adjective, cardinal, not compared, and qualifies men. Blessed is a participial adjective, compared by more and most, positive, and qualifies men understood. Pure is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and qualifies men understood. 226. ABBREVIATION.-This process may be abbreviated without loss, by omitting the class, as of no use in Syntax, and also omitting to mention the degree of comparison, except the comparative or superlative, taking it for granted, in adjectives compared, that it is in the positive, unless otherwise stated. Any mention of degree, in adjectives not compared, would be improper. In this way the preceding adjectives may be parsed, thus: Wise is an adjective, compared by er and est, and qualifies son. More precious is an adjective, compared by more and most, comparative, and qualifies wisdom. Wiser is an adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, and qualifies sluggard. 227. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. What is an adjective? The pupil having given the definition (195) answer, for the purpose of illustrating it, a list of nouns may again be formed on the blackboard as directed (181); and supposing the list to be man, horse, apple, house, tree, book, &c.. the teacher may take them up, each in order, and proceed in some such way as the following : Are all men exactly alike? If Ans. Some are tall; some are MAN.-What part of speech is man? Why? not, mention some things in which they differ. short; some old; some young; some learned; some unlearned; some wise; some foolish, &c. When you say "a tall man, a short man, an old man, a young man," what is the use of the words tall, short, old, &c.? Ans. They are used to qualify the word "man," by telling what sort of a man is meant (196-1). What part of speech are words used to qualify nouns? Then what part of speech are tall, short, old, young, &c.? Prefix an adjective to each of the nouns in the list above, so as to make sense. Prefix as many adjectives to each noun separately, as you can think of, to make sense; thus: HORSE-a large horse, a small horse, a young horse, &c. What part of speech is large, small, young, &c.? Why? COMPARATIVE DEGREE. Are all men equally tall? Ans. No; some men are taller than others. When you say, "James is taller than John," in what form or degree is the adjective taller? What does the comparative degree express (211)? How is the comparative degree formed? When is the comparative formed by annexing er? When by prefixing more? What is the comparative form of tall, short, old, young, &c.? What is the comparative form of learned, unlearned, foolish, virtuous, &c.? Put |