used as nouns; as, “The rich and the poor, meet together" (201). This is especially common with all adjective pronouns except the posssessives, and the distributive every; as, "Of books, some are good, some are bad."-"All things come alike to all" (289).

683. Adjectives are sometimes used indefiinitely after an infinitive or participle, without reference to any particular substantive, to express an abstract idea; as, “To be good is to be happy.”— "Being good is better than being great.”

684. When an adjective is a predicate (621), it must qualify its substantive in the subject; as, “God is good, he is also just”– "To do good to others is profitable to ourselves."- "That men should lie is base."

685. An adjective in the predicate sometimes qualifies the subject, not considered simply as a substantive, but as a substantive affected by the action of the connecting verb, which, in that case may be regarded as a strengthened or modified copula (601); as, “That type stands low."—" This fruit tastes bitter."—"The wind blows cold." "The door is painted green."-" John grows tall."- -"Milk turns sour."—" Clay burns white."—" Down feels soft."

686. Adjectives thus used are sometimes, though improperly called adverbial adjectives. As the adverb is sometimes used improperly instead of the adjective in such expressions, the distinction should be carefully marked. Thus

The adverb expresses the manner of the act.

The adjective expresses the condition or state of the subject.

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Hence, when the meaning intended can be expressed by the corresponding adjunct (541), the adverb should be used; as, The stream flows rapidly" (in a rapid manner). Here the adverb rapidly modifies the verb flows. But when the meaning can be expressed nearly by substituting the verb to be or to become as a copula, the adjective should be used; as, "The stream grows [becomes] rapid." This is further illustrated by the following examples, viz. :—

John grows [becomes] old. John grows rapidly [in a rapid manner.]

She looks [is] cold.
He feels [is] warm.

The eagle flies [is] high.
The apple tastes [is] sweet.

She looks coldly [in a cold manner] on him.
He feels warmly [in a warm manner] the
insult.

The eagle flies swiftly [in a swift manner.]
Mary sings sweetly [in a sweet manner.]

687. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs; thus, mis erable poor," should be, "miserably poor"—" sings elegant," should be, "sings elegantly." So, also, adverbs should not be used as adjectives (925); thus, “He arrived safely," should be, “He arrived safe."

688. This here, that there, them books, are vulgarisms, for this, that, those books.

689. An adjective sometimes qualifies an adjective and noun together as one compound term; as, A venerable old man." "The best black tea."

690. Sometimes an adjective modifies the meaning of another adjective; as, “red-hot iron "—" A bright-red color."

691. Several adjectives frequently qualify the same substantive; as, "A large, strong, black horse."

This, That; These, Those.

692. When two or more objects are contrasted, this refers to the last mentioned, that to the first; as, Virtue and vice are opposite qualites; that enobles the mind, this debases it."

693. Former and latter are used in the same way (304). So also, the one, the other, referring to words in the singular or plural (307).

694. When no contrast is expressed, this refers to a thing near or just mentioned, and that to a thing more remote or formerly mentioned.

Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives.

695. When one object is compared with one other of the same class, or with more than one of a different class, individually, or in the aggregate, the comparative is used; as, “James is the weaker of the two "-" He is taller than his father"-"He is taller than any of his brothers."

696. Sometimes, however, when two objects of the same class are compared, the superlative is used, being thought to be less stiff and formal; as, "James is the weakest of the two."

697. When one object is compared with more than one of the same class, the superlative is used, and commonly has the prefixed (713); as, "John is the tallest amongst us."-" He is the best scholar in a class of ten."-" He is the most diligent of them all."

698. In the use of the comparative and superlative, when more than two objects are compared, the following distinction should be carefully observed :

699. When the comparative is used, the latter term of com parison must always exclude the former; "Eve was fairer than any of her daughters."-" Russia is larger than any other country in Europe.”—“China has a greater population than any nation of Europe," or "than any other nation on the globe." Thus used, the comparative requires than after it (963, 2).

700. When the superlative is used, the latter term of comparison must always include the former; "Russia is the largest country in Europe." "China has the greatest population of any

nation on the globe."

701. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper; thus, "James is more taller than John "-omit more; "He is the most 20isest of the three "-omit most.

702. The double comparative lesser, however, is sanctioned by good authority; as, "Lesser Asia "_" Every lesser thing."-N. Y. Review. Like lesser streams."-Coleridge.

703. Adjectives not admitting comparison (223) should not be compared, nor connected with comparative words, such as so, as, and the like. Thus, more universal, so universal, as universal, should be more general, so general, as general; and so of similar words. As exceptions see 224.

Position of Adjectives.

وو

704. An adjective is commonly placed before its substantive; as, “A good man”—“ A virtuous woman." 1. Adjectives should be placed as near as possible to their sub stantives, and so that it may be certain to what noun they belong; thus, "A new pair of shoes ""A fine field of corn -"A good glass of wine," should be, "A pair of new shoes"-" A field of fine corn -"A glass of good wine," because the adjectives qualify shoes, corn, wine, and not pair, field, glass. When ambiguity can not otherwise be avoided, the use of the hyphen may be resorted to with advan. tage; thus, "A good man's coat"-" A good man's-coat."

2. When an adjective qualifies two or more substantives, connected by and, it is usually expressed before the first, and understood to the rest; as, "A man of great wisdom and moderation."

3. It has been disputed whether the numerals, two, three, four, etc., should be placed before the words first and last, or after them, when used to indicate the beginning and end of a series. On this point, with small numbers, usage is nearly equally divided; and, as the matter now stands, in some cases the one form seems to be preferable, and in some, the other. In this construction, as in some others which involve no impropriety, euphony and taste seem to govern This much is certain-neither form can be justly condemned on the ground of either authority or propriety. See Appendix XI.

705. An adjective is placed after its substantive

1. Generally when it qualifies a pronoun; as, "We saw him faint and weary."

2. When other words depend on the adjective; as, "A man sick of the palsy "—"A pole ten feet long.”

3. When the quality results from the action expressed a verb; as, "Extravagance makes a man poor"—" Virtue makes a poor man happy."

4. When the adjective is predicated of the substantive; as, God is good"—" We are happy"—" He who is good is happy” -" He looks feeble”—“ To play is pleasant ”- "That he should fail is strange."

706. In many cases the adjective may stand either before or after its substantive, and sometimes-especially in poetry, and in connection with an infinitive or participle-at a considerable distance from it. In all these, the variety is so great that no rules can provide for them. Care, however, should be taken to place the adjective where its relation to the substantive will be clear and natural, and its meaning effective.

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for the change::

These kind of books can hardly be got. I have not been from home this ten days.-I ordered six ton of coal, and these make the third that has been delivered.-The garden wall is five rod long; I measured it with a ten-foot pole.-Twenty heads of cattle passed along the road.—It is said that a fleet of six sails has just entered the bay. --That three pair of gloves cost twelve shilling(159, 2) A man who is prudent and industrious will, by that means, increase his fortune.—

Charles formed expensive habits, and by those means became poor.If you are fond of those sort of things, you may have them.—(680) There was a blot on the first or second pages.-The first and second verse are better than the third and fourth.

(687) Come quick and do not hinder us.-Time passes swift, though it appears to move slow.-We got home safely before the dark, and found our friends sitting comfortably around the fire.-The boat glides smooth over the lake.-(685) Magnesia feels smoothly.-Open the door widely. The door is painted greenly.

(688) Hand me that there pen, for this here one is the worst of all. —Them books were sold for a lesser price than they cost.

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(692) "For beast and bird;

These to their grassy couch, those to their nests, repair.”
"Night's shadows hence, from thence the morning's shine;
That bright, this dark, this earthly, that divine."

(694) That very subject which we are now discussing is still involved in mystery.-This vessel, of which you spoke yesterday, sailed in the evening.

(698-700) That merchant is the wealthiest of all his neighbors.China has a greater population than any nation on earth.-That ship is larger than any of its class.-There is more gold in California than in any part of North America.-The birds of Brazil are more beautiful than any in South America.-Philadelphia is the most regular of any city in Europe.-Israel loved Joseph more than all his children. -Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings.

(701, 702) A more worthier man you can not find.-The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove.-A worser evil yet awaits us. The rumor has not spread so universally as we supposed.-Draw that line more perpendicular.-This figure is a more perfect circle than that is.-He is far from being so perfect as he thinks he is.

The Article and its Noun,

707. RULE III.-1. The article a or an is put before common nouns in the singular number when used indefinitely (185); as, "A man"-" An apple;" that is, any man”—“any apple” (186, 187).

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