321. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive 1. By the addition of another word; as, intransitive, “I laugh; transitive, "I laugh at" (375). 2. When followed by a noun of the same, or similar. signification, as an object; as, intransitive, "I run," transitive, "I run a race." 66 322. The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and sometimes in an intransitive sense. Thus, in the sentence, "Charity thinketh no evil," the verb is transitive. In the sentence, "Think on me," it is intransitive. 323. So also verbs, really transitive, are used intransitively, when they have no object, and the sense intended, being merely to denote an exercise, is complete without it. Thus, when we say, "That boy reads and writes well "—" reads" and "writes" are really transitive verbs; because, a person who reads and writes, must read and write something. Yet, as the sense is complete without the object, nothing more being intended than simply, "That boy is a good reader and writer," the verbs, as here used, are intransitive. 324. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. When we say, "John runs," what part of speech is John ?-Why? What is the use of runs in the sentence? It tells what John does. is what a person or thing does, the act of that person or thing? What part of speech are words that express the act of a person or thing? Verbs. Then what part of speech is runs ?—Why? Of what is it that verbs express the act, being, or state? Of their subject. Whose act does runs express? Then what is John to the verb runs? When you say, John runs," does it mean that he does anything to another? What sort of verbs express an act not done to another? What kind of a verb, then, is runs? If you say," John cuts wood," which word tells what John does? Then what part of speech is cuts? Is it transitive or intransitive? EXERCISES. Why? 1. In the following sentences, tell which words are verbs, and why —which are transitive, and why—which are intransitive, and why?— which are attributive, and why? The boy studies grammar.—The girls play.-Grass grows n. the meadows. The farmer ploughs his field, and sows his grain.-Victoria is queen of England.-Romulus built. Rome. The sun shines.-Honey is sweet.-The winds blow. The tree fell.-Bring your books, and prepare your lessons. The apple tastes sour.-Have you recited ?-Who read last ?—God created the heavens and the earth.— Columbus discovered America. 2. Write a list of nouns, or names of persons or of things, in a column on the left side of the blackboard; write after each, a word or words which tell something that each of them does or is; tell what part of speech that word is, and why: if a verb, whether transitive, intransitive, or attributive, and why? Formation of Tenses. 325. In respect of form, verbs are divided into Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 326. A Regular verb is one that forms its past tense (415) in the indicative mood (376) active (366), and its past participle (459), by adding ed to the present; as, present, act; past, acted; past participle, acted. NOTE.-Verbs ending in e mute, drop e before ed; as love, loved, loved (66). See 494. 327. An Irregular verb is one that does not form. its past tense in the indicative active, and its past participle, by adding ed to the present; as, present, write; past, wrote; past participle, written. 328. A Defective verb is one in which some of the parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs. Auxiliary Verbs. 329. Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are those by the help of which other verbs are inflected. They are, do, have, be;-shall, will;-may, can, must ;—and, except be, they are used only in the present and the past tense; thus: Present. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, must. Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, 330. Be, do, and have, are also principal verbs, and, as such, belong to irregular verbs (512). Be is used as an auxiliary in all its parts (354). For the inflection of auxiliaries with the principal verb, see 494, 507, and 516. The Use of Auxiliaries. 331. Some verbs, now used as auxiliaries only, were probably at first independent verbs, and combined syntactically with the following verb, in the infinitive-the sign to being in process of time omitted, as it now is after such verbs as see, hear, feel, etc. (877); thus, "I can [to] do "_" They will [to] write "—" We could [to]go,” etc.; and some grammarians contend that they should be so considered still (381). 332. Shall, will, may, can, and their past tenses, should, would, etc., as auxiliaries, retain the personal endings of the second person singular; thus, shalt, wilt, mayst, canst—shouldst, wouldst, mightst, couldst. But in their present they do not retain the personal ending of the third person singular; thus, we say, he shall, will, may, can-not he shalls, wills, mays, cans. This will be seen by their use in the inflection of verbs. 333. Do is used as an auxiliary in the present tense, and did in the past, to render the expression emphatic; as, “ I do love ”—“ I did love." Also when the verb in these tenses is used interrogatively, or negatively; as, "Does he study ?"-" He does not study."—" Did he go ?”—“ He did not go.”—Do is used as an auxiliary in the second person singular of the imperative; as, "Do thou love." 334. Have is used as an auxiliary in the present-perfect tense, and had in the past-perfect. For further remarks upon the analysis of compound tenses, with do and have as auxiliaries, see APPENDIX IX. Shall and Will-Should and Would.* 335. Shall, primarily and strictly, denotes present obligation; as, "I shall go," i. e., I am under obligation to go; and will, present inclination, purpose, or volition; as, "I will go," i. e., It is my purpose to go, (I will to go); from which the futurity of the act, etc., is naturally inferred. But, as auxiliaries, the primary signification is nearly lost sight of, and they are used to denote futurity-still modified, however, in their use, by their primary signification. They are usually distinguished as follows :— SHALL and WILL, expressing RESOLUTION, PURPOSE, etc. 336. Will denotes the purpose, resolution, or inclination, of a person, in reference to his own acts; and shall, his purpose, etc., in reference to the acts of others over whom he has authority or power. As the purpose expressed may be that of the speaker, of the person addressed, or of the person spoken of, hence will arise the three following forms, viz. :— FIRST FORM.-Expressing the resolution of the speaker. It is my purpose or intention that-I will write-you shall write-he shall write. Or, without a preceding clause: I will write—you shall write -he shall write. SECOND FORM.-Expressing the resolution of the person addressed. It is your purpose, etc., that—I shall write-you will write-he shall write. THIRD FORM.-Expressing the resolution of the person spoken of It is his purpose, etc., that—I shall write-you shall write—he (himself) will write—he (another) shall write. The second and third forms can not be used without a preceding clause. 337. Hence it is manifest that will expresses the purpose, resolu tion, promise, etc., of the subject of the verb. Thus :— I will go, He will go, expresses My resolution, etc. His resolution, etc. 338. Fixed purpose or determination, however, is expressed in a more positive and absolute manner in the first person by shall than by Pupils may be required to analyze these as other compound tenses of the verb, giving the distinctive meaning of each part. Such an exercise will tend to produce critical accuracy in the use of these auxiliaries. will, because in this way, the person, as it were, divests himself of will, and puts himself entirely at the disposal of another. Thus, a person may say, "I shall go, though much against my inclination." For this reason, shall is more polite and respectful in a promise, and more offensive in a threat, than will. Interrogatively. 339. In asking questions, these auxiliaries, in this sense, are used with reference to the will of the second person, to whom a question is always supposed to be addressed, and hence are used as in the second of the above forms; thus Shall I write? Will you write? Shall he write?—Equivalent to— Is it your purpose that I shall write ?-you will write ?—he shall write? SHALL and WILL expressing FUTURITY. 340. In regard to simple futurity, the use of shall and will is directly the reverse of what it is in the expression of resolution: that is, will takes the place of shall, and shall takes the place of will. In other words, when a person in reference to himself foretells what is future, shall is used; and in reference to others, will is used. Thus FIRST FORM.—I think that I shall go—that thou wilt go—that he will go. Or, without a preceding clause: I shall go-thou wilt go-he will go. SECOND FORM.-You think that I will go-that you shall go—that he will go. THIRD FORM.-He thinks that I will go-that you will go that he (himself) shall go-that he (another) will go. 341. But when the thing foretold is regarded, either as pleasing, or repugnant, shall is used with reference to the first person, even when others are represented as foretelling; as You seem to think } that I shall recover. Interrogatively respecting the future. 342. Shall is used interrogatively in the first and the second person, and will in the third; as, "Shall I arrive in time?"—" Shall you be at home to-morrow?"-" Will your brother be there?" 343. Shall is used, instead of will, after the conjunctions if, provided, though, unless, etc.—the adverbs when, while, until, after, before, etc.-and also after whosoever, or a relative pronoun in a restrictive |