ter, or air highly rarefied, and abounding in caloric, which Plutarch calls fervour (éσ15)—Juno, or vital air-Pluto, or air deprived of its vivifying part-and Nestis, the humid principle. Archelaus, who by the way taught that sound was propagated by vibrations of the aerial fluid, endeavoured to express his doctrine more shortly, by saying, "fire and water are nothing else than air in the extremes of rarefaction and density."

Osiris in one of his symbolical characters represented the air; and Osiris, according to the mythologists, was of both sexes. Athenagoras, who lived in the second century, says that the mythologists call the twofold air masculine and feminine Jupiter (dépa διφυῆ ἀρσενοθήλην τὸν Δία λέγουσιν). It is quite evident from this, that the Egyptians were aware that common air is not a primary and simple element. But we have seen, that Jupiter, or Osiris, represented pure air, and the element abounding in caloric-that Juno, or Isis, typified vital air-and Pluto, or Typhon, air deprived of its vivifying part. In fact the Egyptians seem to have combined the three deities together as representing the air: Osiris frater est, Isis soror, Typho autem maritus. (Jul. Firmicus.) Thus Typhon was the husband of Isis-he represents the azotic, as she represents the zotic portion of the air; and Osiris is the type of caloric, to the developement of which Typhon is always opposed, as Isis is always friendly.

The Greeks seem to have obtained some notions concerning vital air from the Egyptians; but as they were not so versant in the practice of chemistry as their masters, they appear not to have very well understood what was meant by life-bringing Juno. They were aware, however, that there is a portion of atmospheric air which is necessary to animal life, and to the developement of the igneous principle. We have seen in a former part of this essay that Erasistratus, after his establishment in Egypt, taught, that a portion of the air inhaled into the lungs was separated from the rest, and that the portion so separated was called by him TVEŬμα LaTxov, vital spirit, or vital air. Some passages in Hippocrates seem to indicate, that he had at least heard of a similar doctrine. "The bodies of men," says he, " are nourished by three things, meat, drink, and spirits" (vsúμara). In his book de natura hominis, he observes, that "some diseases are generated by our diet, and

others by the spirit, by inhaling which we live :" (ai voûæos yívovrai, αἱ μὲν ἀπὸ διαιτημάτων, αἱ ἀπὸ τοῦ πνεύματος, ᾧ εἰσαγόμενοι ζῶμεν.) It is well known to modern physicians, that when the air which we breathe is too much charged with oxygen-gas, it is extremely noxious to persons suffering from phthisis; and again when the just proportion of this gas is wanting, the air is necessarily unwholesome. That Hippocrates meant by pneuma, what we call vital air, appears from a passage in his treatise de flatibus. This physician was utterly unacquainted with the Pythagorean system of astronomy, and he fancied that the celestial bodies were all igneous. In the way of his own profession, however, he had informed himself a little better concerning vital air; for after observing that the heavenly bodies are preserved in their course by spirit, he adds, "for spirit is the food of fire, and fire deprived of spirit cannot live :" (TM yàp πυρὶ τὸ πνεῦμα τροφὴ, τοῦ δὲ πνεύματος τὸ πῦρ στερηθὲν οὐκ ἂν δύναιτο Zwey.) Now it is to be observed, that the word rveupa is not to be translated air in any of these examples, for Hippocrates always, as far as I know, uses the word ång, when he means to speak of common atmospheric air. No one has now to learn that vital air is as necessary to the existence of fire, as to the existence of animals; and that air deprived of oxygen-gas will as certainly extinguish fire as it will extinguish life.

The ancient physicians seem to have held, that what they called τὸ πνεῦμα ψυχικὸν is obtained from the air inhaled into the lungs. Hippocrates teaches a whimsical doctrine on this subject : "The left ventricle of the heart," says he, "is the principal seat of human sentiment. Thence the whole sensible part of the frame is governed." He then adds, that this sensorium "is not nourished by food received into the belly, but by a pure, aëriform, luminous substance, which arises by secretion from the blood." (Hippoc. de corde.) The Latins seem sometimes to have understood the word anima for the pure part of the air, which is separated in the Jungs from the impure part. Anima est aër conceptus in ore, defervefactus in pulmone, tepefactus in corde, diffusus in corpore. (Varro.) This doctrine is not very accurate, but it indicates that some tradition concerning the operation of the lungs in separating the zotic from the azotic air had come down to the time of Varro. The following passages occur in the sacred scriptures. "But

flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat. (Gen. ix. 5.) Only be sure, that thou eat not the blood for the blood is the life; and thou mayest not eat the flesh with the life." The word D, which is rendered life in the English version, in its original signification means breath. In various passages it may be translated life, soul, &c.; but in the instances before us, it clearly means that part of the air which, after being inhaled into the lungs, is separated from that which is emitted by the act of respiration. Now the part of the air which is retained in the lungs instantly mixes with the blood, changes its colour, and is carried by it through the arteries to all the different parts of the body. It is however thus in great measure absorbed before the blood is brought back again by the veins. This part of the air, which is called oxygen-gas, and which I would rather denominate zotic gas, as denoting its most important function, is necessary to animal life. It appears from some remarks made by Calmet, that the Tsabeans were accustomed occasionally to eat flesh with the blood; and I think it not unlikely, that this practice might have had its origin in some notion, that the warm blood, full of zotic gas, might be friendly to life; and as the custom was not only superstitious, but was probably often cruelly practised to the suffering of living animals, it was forbidden to the Hebrews. But it is a mistake to suppose, that the sacred writer meant to say, either that life is the blood, or that blood is the living principle in animals, The word , as we have already seen, signifies breath. Life ceases with respiration-and why? because the blood is only preserved from dissolution and corruption by receiving through the lungs that portion of the air respired, by which its oxygenation is continually renewed. He then, who knew this, might figuratively call the blood the breath, or the life; without literally meaning that blood is either breath or life. Animal life, I am apt to think, results from secretion. The zotic gas is separated in the lungs from the azotic. This zotic gas combines with the blood, which it oxygenates; from the blood the animal spirits are secreted, and these act as stimuli upon the brain and nerves. Thus then the vital principle is continually renewed by inhalation, and continually exhausted by action on the organs. But nature, acting by the impulse of the divine Creator, has contrived many alembics in the

wonderful construction of organised material beings. Some of these, it is probable, will ever escape the researches of the physiologist.

Rome, April 8, 1819.

W. DRUMMOND.

Erratum No. 36. For" that is by vau conjunctive,” read " that is, the future preceded by the vau conversive."

P. S. I find that I was mistaken, when I stated from memory in the 6th No. of this Essay, that Hor-Apollo had mentioned any hieroglyphic, which indicated the needle of the compass. The testimony of Plutarch, however, seems sufficient for my argument; and should the question be farther investigated, I have found several proofs among the hieroglyphics themselves to corroborate my opinion.

NOTICE OF

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Of all the works which of late years have been presented to the notice of the biblical student, this is one of the most correct and useful. It is an encyclopedia of theological knowledge. The extensive reading, and miscellaneous learning of the author is visible in every page of this long desired miscellany. It is a complete abridgment of many extensive treatises of the most celebrated divines both of our own, and foreign countries; and it entitles its author to the gratitude and approbation of every lover of the sacred volume. This is high praise, but it is well deserved, and we trust that every one, who has been gratified with a sight of Mr. Horne's book, and can appreciate the real service he has done to the common cause of religion and learning, will bear witness to the truth and justice of our encomium.

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For upwards of seventeen years, the plan of the work has been steadily kept in view. The author endeavoured to embrace all those important subjects which he apprehended to be essential to the critical study of the sacred volume. The whole has been divided into three parts.-Part I. comprises a concise view of the geography of Palestine, and of the political, religious, moral, and civil state of the Jews. In this part the nature and classification of the sacrifices, the Jewish sects, &c. are discussed; the whole of the information collected by Lightfoot in his Horæ Hebraicæ seems to be condensed and simplified by the patient industry and good sense of the author: and references are given in every page for every fact, and almost for every observation. Mr. Horne's account of the punishment of crucifixion is one of the most interesting descriptions we ever read.

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Many of the author's readers will be of opinion that this part is the most valuable of the whole work. The first chapter of the second part which treats on the several senses of Scripture, the literal, allegorical, typical, parabolic, and spiritual sense; concluding with some general rules for investigating these different senses; and the conclusion of the next chapter, containing rules for the investigation of emphases, are particularly valuable. The examination of the dialects, Hebraisms, Rabbinisms, Syriasms, and Chaldaisms, Latinisms, Persisms, and Cilicisms, is extremely curious and interesting. The chapter on the figurative language of the Scripture, in which Mr. Horne explains in the most satisfactory manner the nature of the metonymies, metaphors, allegories, parables, proverbs, &c. &c. of Scripture; and in which he gives instances of each, with rules for their interpretation, ought to be reprinted as a separate tract. The chapter on reconciling the apparent contradictions occurring in the Scriptures, whether in the Mosaic law, in chronology, morality, history, doctrine, philosophy, and the nature of things, could only have been written by a man who unites enlargement of mind with accuracy of research and