appears frequently in the later text; and in it, too, the relative takes the undeclined form woche, instead of the older while or wulc. The conjugation of verbs is generally that of the AngloSaxon, with the exceptions already noted: but it suffers also certain other changes, which lead us fast towards English. The preposition to is inserted before infinitives; the common infinitive termination -an is changed into en (as likewise elsewhere the final -a into -e); the final n of the infinitive is omitted, sometimes in the earlier manuscript, and generally in the later; and a difficult gerundive form in -nne or ne, (which has not happened to occur to us,) is indeed retained, but is confounded with the present participle in -nde, the original of our participle in -ing. 5. A few lines of the Brut, with the scantiest annotation, may suffice to exemplify these remarks, and serve, in some degree, as a ground of comparison with the older diction of the Chronicle. Our extract is from the account of the great battle of Bath, in which the illustrious Arthur is said to have signally discomfited the Saxons. The semi-stanzas are separated by colons.* .3 Ther weoren Sæxisce men: folken' alre2 ærmest ;3 Al was the king abolgen: swá bith the wilde bar: as is the wild boar. * Thá isæh Arthur: athelest10 kingen :11 When saw Arthur, noblest 1 For folca; genitive plural, of folc. 8 of-kings, * Falra (sometimes alra) is the correct genitive plural of call or all. For leoda; from leod (German, leute). See Cædmon, Note 5. Literally, fey-ship; Anglo-Saxon, fæge; Scottish fey. See Guy Mannering. 7 For sona. 8 Good Anglo-Saxon from inf. abelgan. 9 Good Anglo-Saxon. The verb beón, to be, gives, in the present, ic beó, thú byst, he byth; and wesan, to be, gives ic eom, thú eart, he is. Superlative from the Anglo-Saxon, aethel or ethel (German edel). "The error marked in Note 1. 10 * Madden's Layamon, iii. 468-471; the text of the older manuscript. The wulf heom to twitet" : i de T The wolf them to cometi.. an a. Ich am wulf, and he is gat: the g * Modern spelling, for h * lieuce stall; perhaps bere it means nahr The word gat i fire used correctty as feminin there aur tuer it is held as masculine, bein," represente. pussing, he may be a corruption for the femini wart ovine" tue laker that foru in the later diec Tausacious of the Pinologica bociety: vol. 1. p. 279 2 Dout from windun to wind or twine. C In 1542 * Pula of slojunctive; wrongly used for singula: * From moun, as the Old English and Scottish word, menu+ C) MIERNI Wiiun, to depart. 19 Angio-SaxoL guma. The passage, with a translation, is also in Guest's "History of incisi Kuytume," vo.. L. 1838. CHAPTER 1 THE OLD ENGLISH HELILI A. D. 1250-12500 FORMATION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE INGHE 1 ARTE 1. Principle of the Change-Inferans seeme tract from the Owl and the Junge- Love ties-An Anglo-Saxo Iwer The Scottish Tungue in the Firmenn. 14. Great Changes in the Fear my Rose. 1. ESCAPING from the people sites of reached an era in which the Bow ン English. The prismus aeger of vot deviates from its German FOLLOW Some of the hangs vir us, suggest and Lustre tree trans lead us away from the The par a omplia many of the words we bare aarze tent, was rich in The Anglo-Saxo e de la tour of eo: ga v A given word, many of the worst ta uz od pressed by change the form of the word to 4 other words. É de course of the Whar12 Colgrim at-stod: and æc stal13 wrote: Then called the king, keenly loud: Nú him is al swá there gat: ther he1 thene hul wat: * * * * Ich am wulf, and he is gat: the gume'' scal beon faie: 20 12 Modern spelling, for hw-. 13 Hence stall; perhaps here it means fight; whence stalwart, brave. 14 The word gat is first used correctly as feminine, being joined with there and then it is held as masculine, being represented by he. But, possibly, he may be a corruption for the feminine heó, which seems to have sometimes taken that form in the later dialect of the west. Transactions of the Philological Society: vol. i. p. 279: 1844. 15 A noun from windan, to wind or twine. 16 Plural of subjunctive; wrongly used for singular. See 17 From man; as the Old English and Scottish word, menye or meinye, a company. 18 Witan, to depart. 19 Anglo-Saxon, guma. 20 See Note 6. The passage, with a translation, is also in Guest's "History of English Rhythms," vol. ii. 1838. CHAPTER III. THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD. A. D. 1250-A. D. 1500. FORMATION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 1. Principle of the Change-Inflections deserted-Substitutes to be found-The First Step already exemplified.-2. Stages of the Re-Construction-Early English-Middle English. EARLY ENGLISH.-3. Character of the Early English-Specimens.-4. Extract from the Owl and the Nightingale.-5. Extract from the Legend of Thomas Becket. MIDDLE ENGLISH.-6. Character of the Middle English-the Main Features of the Modern Tongue established-Changes in Grammar-Changes in VocabularySpecimens Chaucer.-7. Extracts from Prologue to the Canterbury Tales.-8. Extracts from the Knight's Tale.-9. Specimen of Chaucer's Prose.-10. Language in the Early Part of the Fifteenth Century-Extract from Lydgate's Churl and Bird.11. Language in the Latter Part of the Fifteenth Century-Its Character-The Structure of the English Tongue substantially Completed-Extract from The Paston Letters. THE LANGUAGE OF SCOTLAND.-12. A Gothic Dialect in North-Eastern Counties-An Anglo-Saxon Dialect in Southern Counties-Changes as in England.—13. The Scottish Tongue in the Fourteenth Century-Extract from Barbour's Bruce.14. Great Changes in the Fifteenth Century-Extract from Dunbar's Thistle and Rose. 1. ESCAPING from the perplexities of the Semi-Saxon, we have reached an era in which the language may reasonably be called English. The principles in respect of which our modern speech deviates from its Germanic root, now begin to operate actively. Some of the changes which have already been observed by us, suggest and illustrate these principles: others may seem to lead us away from them. The primary law is exemplified by very many of the words we have analyzed. It is this. The Anglo-Saxon, like the Latin, though not to the same extent, was rich in inflections: a given idea being denoted by a given word, many of the modifications of that idea could be expressed by changes in the form of the word, without aid from any other words. In the course of the revolution, most of the inflec tions disappeared. Consequently, in expressing the modifications of an idea denoted by a given word, the new language has often est to join with that word other words denoting relations. Such a change occurs when the inflections of a Latin verb have their place supplied by auxiliary verbs, and those of the noun by prepositions. It is exemplified when the genitive "Roma" |