have been familiar in that region by the beginning of the eighteenth century. Both of the Mathers used the word, applying it to the New England colleges. Judge Sewall and Secretary Addington applied it to the proposed college at New Haven. The connection was particularly close between the men of the eighteenth-century academies in England and the men of the Great Awakening in America. Jonathan Edwards wrote his Faithful Narrative at the request of Isaac Watts and Dr. Guyse of London, who added to it a preface of their own. In his Thoughts on the Revival, a little later, Edwards called attention to Dr. Doddridge's account of the religious influences at work in his academy at the English Northampton, and recommended that people of means in this country should proceed to establish schools. Whitefield, too, as he went up and down the country, carried with him a knowledge of and interest in the academies of both England and America. He spoke with evident pride of the fact that Franklin's academy was housed in the building originally erected to accommodate the congregations which flocked to hear his own preaching.

The earlier academy movement in this country, prior to the Revolution, belongs to the middle colonies. This was a time of experiment, in which the real character of the American institution was as yet undetermined. It was not until the colonies had set up for themselves that this type became clearly marked. The movement from that time on centred in New England, the leaders and models being the two Phillips academies, at Andover and Exeter. No clear evidence has been brought forth which would settle for us the question whence these two institutions got their name or their inspiration. In the absence of such evidence, it seems as likely that the Phillips family were influenced by

1 The designation of the Andover institution was evidently the subject of considerable discussion before it was finally decided to call it an academy. Judge Phillips refers vaguely, in one of the papers that he left, to "the method of the ancients." (Cf. PARK, Earlier annals, pp. 12-14.) He may have had some thought of the original Academy of Plato.

knowledge of the academies of Old England as that they followed the lead of the Pennsylvania institutions, and not at all improbable that both groups were known and considered by them. But the New England academies were very different from their prototypes over seas; and the experiments in the middle states may be regarded as pointing forward to this later American type.1

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

We have a convenient issue of the Tractate on education in OSCAR BROWNING'S edition: Cambridge University Press, 1890, pp. 43. From the same press has come an excellent edition of LOCKE's Some thoughts concerning education, prepared by Mr. R. H. QUICK: Cambridge, 1880, pp. 240.

The accounts of the English academies are scattered through the various histories of the dissenters. I have made use especially of those of CALAMY (Continuation, etc.), TOULMIN, and WALTER WILSON.

Brief sketches of the history of the academies may be found in the following:

[HAMILTON, RICHARD WINTER], Historical sketch of Airedale College, with brief notices of the northern dissenting academies. The Congregational Magazine (London), new series, VIII., pp. 581-592, October, 1831;

and in The American Quarterly Register (Andover, Mass., 1830), II., p. 255; and

The Quarterly Journal of Education (London, 1831), I.,

p. 49 ff.

1 The parallel development of "academies" in Scotland and in Germany presents many interesting features. For the establishment of the Scotch academies beginning with that of Perth, in 1760-see GRANT, Burgh schools of Scotland, pt. 2, ch. 2, sec. 5, pp. 114-126. They were established in response to a call for "a more liberal and more practical course of education," and laid emphasis on the teaching of science. These Scotch academies seem to have been generally governed by boards made up largely of the subscribers who had established the several schools, but with a representation also from the town councils.

Id., p. 121 ff.

An account of the German Ritterakademien, institutions of a very different sort, appears in PAULSEN, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, bk. 2, sec. 1, ch. 3. These schools flourished in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

The character of the educational institutions of the dissenters at a later date is discussed with much frankness in an article entitled:

The defects of dissenting colleges. The Eclectic Review (London), new series, VIII., pp. 547-561, November, 1840;

and in other issues of the same magazine.

Reference should be made also to:

[BELKNAP, REV. JER., D.D., and KIPPIS, DR. ANDREW], Memoirs of the lives, characters, and writings of those two eminently pious and useful ministers of Jesus Christ, Dr. Isaac Watts and Dr. Philip Doddridge. Boston, 1793, pp. 301.

KIPPIS'S Life of Doddridge is prefixed to volume I. of Doddridge's works.

Isaac Watts; his life and writings, his homes and friends [date and author not given]. London, The Religious Tract Society;

contains some interesting matter. The standard life of Watts, that by GIBBONS, I have not seen.

For the education of Daniel Defoe, we have:

WILSON, WALTER. Memoirs of the life and times of Daniel De Foe: containing a review of his writings and his opinions upon a variety of important matters, civil and ecclesiastical. In three volumes. London, 1830, I., ch. 2.

Also

LEE, WILLIAM. Daniel De Foe: His life and recently discovered writings. London, 1869.

The titles of Samuel Wesley's pamphlets against the educational institutions of the dissenters and of the replies by Samuel Palmer are given in a foot-note to page 10 of Lee's work. The only one of these pamphlets that I have found is the following, in the library of Columbia University: PALMER, SAMUEL. A vindication of the learning, loyalty, morals, and most Christian behaviour of the Dissenters toward the Church of England. In answer to Mr. Wesley's Defence of his letter concerning the Dissenters education in their private academies And to Mr. Sacheverel's injurious reflections upon them. London: Printed for J. Lawrence at the Angel in the Poultry, 1705, pp. 115.

DEFOE'S Essay upon projects and The present state of the parties in Great Britain were both printed anonymously, the former in 1697 and the latter in 1712. There is a copy of the first of these in the Boston Public Library, and of the other in the Library of Congress. The Essay upon projects is accessible in various reprints.

CHAPTER IX

EARLY AMERICAN ACADEMIES

In view of those beginnings which have already been traced, we may say that the academy movement was an outcome of nonconformity. While largely in line with the educational tradition of the time, it involved also a considerable range of educational dissent, along with the more obvious element of religious dissent. Especially in the eighteenth century, it was largely a middle-class movement. If there was in it something of crude philistinism, there was also in it some vital appreciation of the educational significance of that great movement by which the common people were rising to power and prominence.

The great increase of sectarianism in America, where the several church establishments were less powerful than that of England, brought forward a new educational problem. How should education be promoted in a society split in every direction with religious diversity? The significant fact was that there were in that society men who appreciated the need and value of education. There was a growing number of good citizens who, however much they might differ as to religion, agreed in their love of learning. Such men gradually found it possible to work together on the boards of trustees of the new institutions. Much concession and adjustment was necessary; but the co-operative scheme won its way as it was found to be workable. The history of the Philadelphia academy will give some idea of the general course of this movement.

As early as 1743, Benjamin Franklin had sketched a plan for the establishment of an academy. But the times were

not propitious, and he was a man who could wait. Six years later the outlook was more favorable, and after consultation with some of his friends he published his Proposals relating to the education of youth in Pennsylvania. "The good education of youth," it read, "has been esteemed by wise men in all ages. as the surest foundation of the happiness both of private families and of commonwealths." The decline of learning in the colonies was deplored. Many of the fathers had been well educated in Europe; but “the present race are not thought to be generally of equal ability; for, though the American youth are allowed not to want capacity, yet the best capacities require cultivation." It was accordingly proposed that some gentlemen of leisure and public spirit should secure a charter authorizing them to erect an academy. These trustees should take a personal interest in the school, and should undertake in practical ways to promote the welfare of its students when they should go forth to the duties of active life.

It was further proposed that a building should be provided in a healthful situation, with garden, orchard, meadow, and field; and furnished with a library, philosophical apparatus, and other appliances. There should be a rector and the necessary number of tutors under him. Provision should be made for boarders. Sports were recommended for the physical good of the students: running, leaping, wrestling, and swimming.

"As to their studies, it would be well if they could be taught everything that is useful, and everything that is ornamental. But art is long and their time is short. It is therefore proposed, that they learn those things that are likely to be most useful and most ornamental; regard being had to the several professions for which they are intended."

All were to be taught penmanship, drawing (with perspective), arithmetic (with accounts, and the first principles of geometry and astronomy), and the English language (grammar, oral reading, and composition). The greatest stress was laid upon studies in English. Authors of the