also been stated. Some of the most frequent violations of the principles of Verbal Criticism will now be enumerated, and those cautions given which are most needed on this subject.

"The lamb is tame in its disposition."-Here the word tame is incorrectly used for gentle;-tameness is superinduced by discipline-gentleness belongs to the natural disposition.

"Herschel discovered the telescope."-In this sentence the word discover is incorrectly used for invent. We discover what was before hidden; we invent what is new.

"Caius Mucius displayed courage, when he stood unmoved with his hand in the fire."

Here courage is incorrectly used for fortitude. It is courage that enables us to meet danger; but fortitude gives us strength to endure pain.

In these instances, the words which are substituted, resemble in meaning those which are displaced. Such words are said to be synonymous. They agree in expressing the same principal idea, but some accessory circumstance produces a shade of difference in their meaning. As the English language is characterized by copiousness, there is great danger of confounding terms which are synonymous. Hence, in the use of words, care should be had, lest we confound those which are synonymous.

"The observation of days of Thanksgiving, is common in New England." Here the word observation, is evidently used instead of observance, which it resembles in sound.

"The endurance of his speech was for an hour."Here the word endurance, which signifies suffering, is used for duration, which implies length of time. It is

true, that if a speech be dull and continue for an hour, we may speak of the endurance of those who listen to it. But in the example which is given, the word is wrongly used for duration.

In these instances, a similarity of sound has led to mistake. Hence, in the use of words, we should avoid confounding those which are similar in sound.

"Meanwhile the Britons, left to shift for themselves, were forced to call in the Saxons to their aid."

"He passed his time at the court of St. James, currying favour with the minister."

The expression left to shift for themselves, and currying favour, found in these sentences, are most frequently heard in the conversation of men destitute of refinement and information. They are beneath

the dignity of the historical style. Like clowns when admitted to the society of polite, well informed men, they appear out of place. Other expressions equally significant, and better suited to the subject, might be substituted. Hence then we learn, that low words and phrases, or such as are usually termed vulgarisms, are to be avoided.

We are liable to err in violation of this rule, from the circumstance, that many words are used in common conversation, which are not suited to the dignity of a written discourse. I might hence infer the importance of keeping good company, and being choice in the selection of our words. Evil communications not only corrupt good manners, but good language.

"I have considered the subject in its integrity."

The writer here means, that he has considered the whole of the subject; but in expressing this idea, he uses a word in its Latin signification. Integrity, in the sense of wholeness, is not in common use by those who

correctly write and speak the English language. Other instances might be cited, in which words have ascribed to them a meaning derived from the Greek, French, or some other language. Hence such instances are called Latinisms, Grecisms, &c. Besides the obscurity, which must thus be caused to those who are ignorant of the meaning of the word in its native language, there is an air of pedantry about expressions of this kind, which renders them disgusting. Hence then the caution may be given, Avoid using words in foreign significations.

We not unfrequently find in reputable English writers, words and phrases which belong to a foreign language. Among those most frequently introduced are the following; coup d'œil-corps de reserve-stans pede in uno miscere utile dulci. Sometimes this practice is carried to an extent, which savours of pedantry, and to one unacquainted with the language of the quo tations, obscures the meaning. Foreign words and phra ses when thus introduced, are designed either to convey some striking thought in a more bold, sententious manner, than could otherwise be done, or to give a happy turn of expression. Hence we infer the proper limit to be observed in their introduction. Whenever we have in our own language, a word or phrase equally expressive and striking, a writer cannot be justified in supplanting it by the use of one that is foreign.

The most frequent instances of the violation of the principles of Verbal Criticism, are in the introduction of new words. So much however has been said on this point, that it is unnecessary to give either examples or rules.

The inquiry may here arise, whether Johnson's Dictionary, or any other, is to be regarded as a standard,

to which we may in all cases refer for the decisions of Verbal Criticism? To this inquiry I answer, that since the words of a language are ever changing, some becoming obsolete, and others coming into use, it is impossible from the nature of the case, that any Dictionary can continue for a length of time, to be a standard of good usage. In regard to Johnson, there are many words now in good use, which are not found in his Dictionary, and many there found, have become obsolete. in the sense he has ascribed to them. Where then is the standard? The principles stated in this chapter give the answer. There is none, except that which the finished scholar forms for himself, from his familiarity with good models of writing. And if he possesses this familiarity, he may conclude, that if a word strikes him as new or strange, it should be considered a word used without good authority, and which, unless some necessi ty for its use exists, should be avoided.

SECTION II.-ON THE COMPOSITION OF SENTENCES.

The design of this section is to treat of the composition of sentences, so far as the clear conveyance of the author's meaning, depends on skill in the use of language.

Sentences are either simple or complex. A simple sentence consists of a single member. A complex sentence consists of several members, and these members are sometimes subdivided into clauses. "The sun shines." This is a simple sentence. "The sun, that rises in the morning and sets at night, gives light to all those who dwell on the face of the earth." This is a complex sentence, and consists of two members, each of which is made up of two clauses.

The principle by which the writer is guided in dividing a discourse into sentences, is, that when he makes this division, he considers the exhibition of his thought as complete. Sometimes in making this exhibition several members are necessary; and where these members are so closely connected, that the reader cannot stop before the conclusion of the sentence with any distinct thought in his mind, the sentence is called a period. If there is one or more places, where he may stop, a distinct thought having been stated, the sentence is called a loose sentence. This distinction will be clearly seen in the following examples. "If in America, as some of England's writers are endeavouring to convince her, she is herafter to find an invidious rival, and a gigantie foe, she may thank those very writers, for having provoked that rivalship and irritated that hostility." This is a period; and it will be noticed, that though there are several members and clauses, there is no place before the close, where the reader may stop with a distinct view in his mind. This account of the period is in agreement with the etymology of the word. It signifies. a circuit, and the thought winds around, as it were, among the different members and clauses,till it is brought out full at the close. The following is a loose sentence. "These minor comforts are all important in the estimation of narrow minds; and they either do not perceive,. or will not acknowledge, that they are more than counterbalanced among us by great and generally diffused blessings." Here it is evident, that we might stop at the word minds, and the thought would be complete ; but had a full stop been placed there, what follows would not, in its present form, constitute a distinct sen

tence.

Since sentences are made up of many words, and of