1114. In odes and lyric pieces, verses of different kinds and different meters or measures are often intermingled, after the manner of the ancient choral odes, with a pleasing effect. "Alexan

der's Feast," Collins's " Ode to the Passions," etc., are examples.

Poetic Pauses.

1115. Besides the usual pauses required to mark the sense in reading, and which may be called sentential pauses, indicated by the punctuation, there are other pauses in poetic composition required by, and necessary to give proper effect to, the movement of the line.

1116. These are chiefly the Final pause and the Casural pause.

1117. The final pause is generally required at the end of every line of poetry, even where there is no sentential pause; but it should not be too distinctly marked, as it consists merely in a brief suspension of the voice without any change in the tone or pitch. When a sentential pause occurs at the end of the line, as it does very often, it takes the place of, and supersedes the final pause.

1118. The casural pause is a suspension of the voice somewhere in the line itself, for which no rule can be given, but which will always be manifest when poetry is well read. It does not occur in very short lines. In lines of some length, it generally occurs near the middle; sometimes, however, nearer the beginning, and sometimes nearer the end; often in the middle of a foot, but never in the middle of a word. Sometimes, besides this, a sort of demicœsural pause is required, to give full effect to the expression. The following lines furnish examples of the cœsural pause in different parts of the line, and also of the demicæsural pause. The former is marked 1"), and the latter (') :—

"The steer and lion" at one crib shall meet,

And harmless serpents" lick the pilgrim's feet."
"The crested basilisk" and speckled snake."
"And on the sightless eyeballs" pour the day."
"But not to me returns

Day," or the sweet approach of even or morn."
"No sooner had the Almighty ceased," but all
The multitude of angels" with a shout,

Loud" as from numbers without numbers," sweet
As from blest voices" uttering joy."

"Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze,
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees;
Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent,
Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent."

These pauses depend in part upon emphasis.

EXERCISES.

As exercises in scanning, lines or stanzas from any poetical work may be selected.

COMPOSITION.

1119. Composition is the art of expressing our thoughts in spoken or written language. It is of two kinds, Prose and Poetry.

1120. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are expressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary language.

1121. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and sentiments are expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more inverted style, by words and figures selected and arranged so as to please the ear, and captivate the fancy.

1122. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or indirect.

1123. Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker delivers his own sentiments.

1124. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person relates, in his own language, what another speaker or writer said.

1125. In the first, when the speaker refers to himself, he uses the first person I or we. When he refers to the person or persons addressed, he uses the second person thou, you, etc.

1126. In the second or indirect discourse, whether the speaker is reported as referring to himself, or to those whom he addresses, the third person is used in either case; as, he, she, they, etc. An example will best illustrate the distinction. Thus :

Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars-hill and said: "Ye men of

Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious; for as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription: To THE UNKNOWN GOD.' Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you."

The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would run thus:

Then Paul, standing on Mars-hill, told the men of Athens, he perceived that in all things they were too superstitious; for as he passed by and beheld their devotions, he found an altar with this inscription: "TO THE UNKNOWN GOD." Whom, therefore, they ignorantly worshipped, Him declared he unto them.

1129. When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person or persons addressed, are different in gender or number, there is no danger of ambiguity. But when in these respects they are the same, ambiguity is unavoidable, from the same pronoun being used in the progress of the discourse, to designate different persons. Hence, to prevent mistakes, it is often necessary to insert the name or designation of the person meant by the pronoun. An example will best illustrate this also:

"Then the son went to his father and said to him [direct], 'I have sinned against heaven and in thy sight.''

"Then the son went to his father and said to him [indirect], that he (the son) had sinned against heaven and in his (his father's) sight.” It will at once be perceived that, without the words enclosed in parenthesis, for explanation, it would be impossible to tell whether by the word he, the father or the son was intended; so also with respect to the word his. Hence, when by the indirect discourse, ambiguity is unavoidable, it is generally better to have recourse to the direct form, and quote the writer's or speaker's own words, as in (1127).

1130. The principal kinds of prose composition are—narrative, letters, memoirs, history, biography, essays, philosophy, sermons, novels, speeches, and orations.

1131. The principal kinds of poetical composition are-the epigram, the epitaph, the sonnet, pastoral poetry, didactic poetry, satires, descriptive poetry, elegy, lyric poetry, dramatic poetry, and epic poetry.

1

The Use of Grammar in Composition.

1132. To speak and write with propriety, in every species of composition, is an attainment of no small importance; and to lead to this attainment is the business of grammar. The grammar of a language is just a compilation of rules and directions, agreeably to which that language is spoken or written. These rules, however, are not the invention of the grammarian, nor dependent on his authority for their validity. As it is the business of the philosopher, not to make a law of Nature, nor to dictate how her operations should be performed, but, by close observation, to ascertain what those laws are, and to state them for the information of others; so the business of the grammarian is, not to make the laws of language, for language is before grammar, but to observe and note those principles, and forms, and modes of speech, by which men are accustomed to express their sentiments, and to arrange the results of his observation into a system of rules for the guidance and assistance of others. It is obvious, then, that the ultimate principle or test to which the rules laid down by the grammarian must conform, is the best usage.

1133. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or form of speech is right, is good English, the only question to be decided is, "Is it according to the best usage?" On this subject, however, it has been made a question, "What is the best usage?" The following sentiments, abridged from Dr. CROMBIE'S work on English Etymology and Syntax, seem to be just, and comprehensive of this whole subject:

The Law of Language.

1134. The usage which gives law to language, in order to establish its authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, must be, in the first place, reputable; by which is meant, not the usage of the court, nor great men, nor merely scientific men; but of those whose works are esteemed by the public, and who may therefore be denominated reputable authors.

1135. In the second place, this usage must be national. It must not be confined to this or that province or district. "Those," to use Campbell's apposite similitude, "who deviate from the beaten road may be incomparably more numerous than those who travel in it; yet, into whatever number of by-paths the former may be divided, there

may not be found in any one of these tracks so many as travel in the king's highway."

1136. Thirdly, This usage must be present. It is difficult to fix, with any precision, what usage may in all cases be deemed present. It is, perhaps, in this respect, different with different compositions. In general, words and forms of speech which have been long disused should not be employed. And so, on the contrary, the usage of the present day is not implicitly to be adopted. Mankind are fond of novelty, and there is a fashion in language as there is in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation, delight in creating new words, and using new forms of phraseology. Now, to adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would argue, not taste, nor judgment, but childish fondness for singularity and novelty. But should any of these maintain its ground, and receive the sanction of reputable usage, it must in that case be received.

1137. The usage, then, which gives law to language, and which is generally denominated good usage, must be reputable, national, and present. It happens, however, that "good usage" is not always uniform in her decisions, and that in unquestionable authorities are found far different modes of expression. In such cases, the following CANONS, proposed by Dr. Campbell, will be of service in enabling to decide to which phraseology the preference ought to be given. They are given nearly in the words of the author:

1138. CANON 1.-When the usage is divided as to any particular words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while the other admits of only one signification, the expression which is strictly univocal should be preferred.

1139. CANON 2.-In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded.

1140. CANON 3.-When expressions are, in other respects, equal, that should be preferred which is most agreeable to the ear.

1141. CANON 4.-When none of the preceding ruler takes place, regard should be had to simplicity.

1142. But though no expression or mode of speech can be justi