called conjunctive, because it is usually preceded by a conjunction; as, if, though, unless, etc. Sometimes it is called conditional, because it usually expresses a condition on which something is suspended. It differs in form from the indicative, in the present tense only; in the verb to be, in the present and past.

NOTE. Both the indicative and potential, with a conjunctive particle prefixed, are used subjunctively; i. e. they are used to express what is conditional or contingent, and with dependence on another verb; as, "If he sleeps (now), he will do well;" "He would go, if he could (go).”

3. The imperative mood, strictly speaking, has only the second person, singular and plural; because, in commanding, exhorting, etc., the language of address is always used; thus, Let him love," is equivalent to, "Let thou him love;" where Let is the proper imperative, and love the infinitive governed by it. (Syntax, 387.)

4. The infinitive mood may be considered as a verbal noun, having the nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive: and hence it is used both as the subject of another verb, and as the object after it. (Syntax, § 47, Rule II.; and § 48, Rule 1.)

§ 23. TENSES OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 183. TENSES are certain forms of the verb, which serve to point out the distinctions of time.

184. Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past and Future: And an action may be represented, either as incomplete and continuing, or, as completed at the time spoken of. This gives rise to six tenses, only two of which are expressed in English by a distinct form of the verb. The others are formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs, thus:

PRESENT.

Action continuing; as, I love, I do love, or I am loving.
Action completed, as, I have loved.

Action continuing; as. I loved. I did love,or Iwas loving.
Action completed; as I had loved.

PAST.

FUTURE.

Action continuing; as, I shall or will love

Action completed; as, I shall have loved.

185. The tenses in English are six, namely: the Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Pastperfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect.

1. The Present tense expresses what is going on at the present time; as, I love you.

2. The Present-perfect tense represents an action or event as completed at the present time; as, "John has cut his finger;" "I have sold my horse;" "I have done nothing this week."

3. The Past tense expresses what took place in past time; as, "God said, let there be light;" "The ship sailed when the mail arrived.”

4. The Past-perfect tense represents an action or event as completed at or before a certain past time; as, "I had walked six miles that day;" “ All the judges had taken their places before Sir Roger

came.'

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5. The Future tense expresses what will take place in future time; as, "I will see you again, and your hearts shall rejoice."

6. The Future-perfect tense intimates that an action or event will be completed at or before a certain time yet future; as, "I shall have got my lesson before ten o'clock to-morrow."

NOTE. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary are called SIMPLE tenses; those with an auxiliary, are called COMPOUND tenses. In the common form of the verb, the simple tenses are the Present and Past Indicative and Subjunctive, Active; all the other tonses are compound

186. § 24. OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES.

I. The Present tense in the simple form is used as follows: 1. It expresses the simple existence of the fact; as, He speaks, She writes; They walk.

2. It is used to express what is habitual or always true; as, He takes smaff; She goes to church; Virtue is its own reward. In this sense it is applied to express the feelings which persons long since dead, or events already past usually excite in our minds; as, Nero is abhorred for his cruelty; Milton is admired for his sublimity.

3. In historical narration, it is used with great effect for the Past tense; as, "Cæsar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy with five thousand men." (552.5).

4. It is used sometimes, instead of the present-perfect tense, in speaking of authors long since dead, when reference is made to their works which still exist; as, Moses tells us who were the descendants of Abraham;" Virgil imitates Homer;" instead of "has told," "has imitated."

5. When preceded by such words as when, before, as soɔn as, after, and the like, it expresses the relative time of a future action; as, When he comes, he will be welcome; As soon as the Post arrives, the letters will be distributea.

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II. The Present-perfect-In the use of this tense, it matters not how long ago the act referred to may have been performed, if it were in a period reaching to and embracing the present, or a part of which is not yet past; as, Many discoveries in the arts have been made since the days of Bacon" (that is, in the period reaching from that time to the present). On the other hand, if the time of an act mentioned is past, and does not include the present, this tense can not be used, however near the time may be. Thus, we can not properly say, "I have seen your friend a moment ago; but "I saw your friend," etc. The following usages may be noticed.

1. This tense is used to express an act or state continued through a period of time reaching to the present; as, "He has studied grammar six months"-" He has been absent [now] six years."

2. It is used to express acts long since completed, when the reference is not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished and

still existing; as, "Cicero has written orations"-" Moses has told us many important facts in his writings"-"Of old thou hast laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work of thy hand." But if the thing completed does not now exist, or if the reference is to the act of finishing, and not to the present continuance of the thing finished, this tense can not be used; thus, we can not say, "Cicero has written poems," because no such productions now remain. Nor, "In the beginning God has created the heavens," because reference is only to the act of God at a certain past time indicated by the words "In the beginning."

3. It is used in the same manner as the present (186, I, 5), instead of the future-perfect, to represent an action, etc., as perfect at a future time; as, "The cock shall not crow, till thou hast

denied me thrice."

4. Sometimes this tense is used in effect to deny the present existence of that of which the verb expresses the completion; as, "I have been young"-meaning, this is now finished-I am young no more; that is, "I am old.”

NOTE. This tense corresponds to the Latin perfect definite.

III.-1. The Past tense-The time expressed by this tense is regarded as entirely past, and, however near to the present, it does not embrace it; as, I saw your friend a moment ago"-“ I wrote yesterday."

2. In such expressions as "I wrote this morning"_" this week" -" this year," etc., the reference is to a point of time now entirely past, in these yet unfinished periods.

3. This tense is used to express what was customary in past "She attended church regularly all her life."

time; as, IV. The Past-perfect tense (Pluperfect) has the same relation to the Past tense that the Present-perfect has to the Present tense. It connects the action or event expressed by the verb with some point or period of time now wholly past, at or before which it was completed; as, then, yesterday, last century, etc.; as He had THEN studied grammar six months;" "He had been a soldier in his youth;" I had written yesterday; Many discoveries in philo. sophy and the arts had been made before the days of Bacon.

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V. The same general observations apply to the Future and Future-perfect tenses, in relation to a point or period of time yet future.

VI. The six tenses here enumerated are all found only in the indicative. The potential has only four tenses; the subjunctive, one, sometimes two, in a form distinct from that of the indicative; the imperative but one; the infinitive two; and the participle three.

VII. The Past tenses both of the potential and the subjunctive mood are much less definite with respect to the time of the action or state expressed by the verb, than the same tenses in the indicative. For examples of this in the potential mood, see § 20 OBS. 2.

The Past subjunctive expresses contingency, etc., respecting what is past, but yet unknown, only when referring to past time expressed or implied; as, "If I saw your friend last year, I have forgotten it." But in connection with the potential mood, or not referring to past time, the Past subjunctive has this peculiarity of usage-it expresses a supposition with respect to something present, but implies a denial of the thing supposed; thus, If I had the money now, I would pay it," implies that I have it not. "If he were well [now], he would go;" implying "he is sick." The present tense here conveys a very different idea; thus, "If I have the money, I will pay it," etc. In order to express the first of these examples in past time, the Past-perfect must be used thus, If I had had the money yesterday, I would have paid it.

§ 25. PARTICIPLES.

187. A PARTICIPLE is a word which, as a verb, expresses an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies a noun; as, "He came seeing;" "Having finished our task, we may play."

188. Participles are so called, because they belong partly to the verb, and partly to the adjective. From the former, they have signification, voice, and tense; and they perform the office of the latter.

189. Verbs have three participles; the present, the past, and the perfect; as, loving, loved, having