present subject, we find that great strength, combined with great flexibility, is particularly requisite. With reference to strength, the pyramidal form of this natural column is obviously conducive to the purpose intended; and the arrangement of the solid matter, of which it is composed, is such as to contribute to the same effect; for that solid matter, instead of being collected into one compact mass, is diffused in such a manner as to resemble the structure of sponge; and it is well known, with reference to the strength of artificial columns, that, the same quantity of matter being given for each, and their height being the same, those columns which are hollow are stronger than those which are solid. Again, the whole column is made up of numerous parts, called vertebræ, which are so firmly bound together as to lessen the chance of being broken in the act of bending; and these vertebræ being applied to each other, throughout, by broad horizontal surfaces, are thus best calculated to support the perpendicular pressure of the superincumbent parts. The effect of general strength is further accomplished by the mutual locking in of the projecting portions, or processes, of the several vertebræ ; and the same effect is accomplished to an additional extent among those vertebræ which belong to the thorax or chest, by the mode of articulation between them and the ribs; each rib being united, not entirely to a single vertebra, but partially to two contiguous vertebræ, near their line of junction. The flexibility of the spine is secured to the utmost requisite extent, by the great number of articulations or joints which it possesses, amounting to more than twenty; as well as by the elasticity of the substance constituting those joints: and the projecting parts or processes of the several vertebræ, which serve for the insertion of the muscles and tendons which are to move the whole, are differently disposed in the neck, the back, and the loins; so as to be accommodated to the degree and kind of motion required in each: thus the vertebræ of the neck admit of a lateral motion to a greater extent than those of the back; and the vertebræ of the back admit of flexion and extension to a greater degree than those of the neck; while the vertebræ of the loins, being intended for support rather than flexibility, have their processes so distributed, as to contribute principally to the former of those effects. Thus far we have considered the conditions of the adult spine, and have seen that they are calculated most admirably both for flexibility and for strength. Let us now examine the same column in the age of early infancy; and here we shall see, that, although at that period the parts, in which the conditions of strength and flexibility are so remarkably developed in the adult state, are not yet formed, or not completed; those parts which are essential to the security of the life of the individual are nearly in as perfect a state as at the age of manhood: so that in the midst of the most decided marks of weakness and imperfection in the rest of the column, there is an extraordinary instance of strength and perfect growth, in precisely that part of it which could not have been left in an incomplete state, without manifest, immediate, and constant danger to the individual. In other words, the bodies and processes of the several vertebræ on which the strength and flexibility of the spine depend, are in early infancy still in a soft or cartilaginous state; while the annular portions, which with their intervening ligaments constitute the spinal canal, are completely ossified; so as to give as great a degree of security to the spinal marrow as at the age of manhood. Nor need we spend much time in ascertaining the final cause of this remarkable difference. Is it not indeed obvious on a moment's reflection, that the very helplessness and imperfect state of the physical powers in infancy, so ill understood and appreciated, though so beautifully described by Lucretius, contribute to the fuller developement of the moral character, not only of the individual, but of his parents also, and of all his immediate connexions. The mutual affection, for instance, that takes place and is cemented between the infant and its mother, during the lengthened period in which the latter nurses her offspring; the stimulus, which is given to the exertions of the other parent in supplying the increasing wants of those who depend on him for support; and the general feeling and expression of good-will and attachment, which bind together the numerous individuals of the same family; all coincide to increase the sum of human happiness and virtue. Whereas, were the infant born with all its powers complete, and capable of exerting those powers as soon as born, independently of the assistance of parent, or sister, or brother; what would then remain of those endearing relations, but the empty name? How incorrect then is the conclusion of the poet in that otherwise most beautiful passage of his poem! "The new-born babe, which like the shipwrecked mariner, lies prostrate on the ground, naked and destitute of every assistance required for the support of life, pierces the surrounding air with its incessant cries; as if foreseeing the long train of miseries which it must hereafter encounter. And yet the tender foal and lamb not only begin to crop the grass, but play about the mother almost as soon as born. The nurse's soothing lullaby is not wanted by them, nor the excitement of the rattle or of any other toy: nor do they require a change of dress accommodated to the changing temperature of the surrrounding atmosphere; nor arms for their defence, nor walled cities for their protection; kind nature supplying to them in bountiful profusion whatever is necessary to satisfy their wants."* As if it might not have been reasonably and safely concluded, that that same power, (call it "nature," or by any other name,) which provided so amply * Tum porro Puer, ut sævis projectus ab undis for the early wants of the lower species of animals, had some good and special reason for leaving the human infant in a temporary state of helpless weakness. SECTION III. Physical Superiority of Man, on what Principle to be estimated. FROM this helplessness in his early years, and from the occasional inferiority of some of his physical organs to the corresponding organs of brutes, it has sometimes been absurdly asked what claim man has, from his physical structure or powers, to be placed first in the scale of animal beings. His strength, what is it to that of the elephant or of the horse, or even of some species of reptiles or fish? his powers of sight and motion, what are they to those of the bird? his sense of odours, to that of the dog? his touch, to that of the spider? And yet, even if we entirely omit the consideration of the soul, that immaterial and immortal principle which is for a time united to his body, and view him only in his merely animal character, man is still the most excellent of animals. How confined are the powers of other animals, considered generally, when compared with those of the human species. The comb of the bee indeed is in its construction wonderful; and so is even the nest of the bird, or the habitation of the beaver: but these animals could never be taught to fabricate, or to use, the simplest of those machines or instruments, which man, even in a very partially civilized state, is in the daily habit of making and employing: much less could they be taught to perform those complicated operations which result from their employment. But, it may perhaps be said, it is the mind, the intellectual power of man, which enables him to produce the effects in question. His mind indeed enables him to conceive the plan of those operations which he executes, but it does no more: and were his form deficient by one of the smallest of its present members, he would be rendered nearly helpless. Take from his hand but one of the fingers, and he could do nothing. It is the human hand which gives the power of execution to the human mind; and it is the relative position of one of the fingers to the other four, which principally stamps the cha Vagituque locum lugubri complet, ut æquum 'st, Cui tantum in vita restet transire malorum. Lib. V. 223–235. racter of the hand; for the thumb, by its capability of being brought into opposition with each of the other fingers, enables the hand to adapt itself to every shape; and gives it that complete dominion which it possesses over the various forms of matter.* Give all the intelligence therefore that you please to the horse, or to the elephant, yet with hoofs instead of hands it is physically impossible that they could construct the simplest instrument: nor could the organs even of the beaver, were that animal gifted with the highest intellectual powers, enable it to effect much more than it is capable of effecting at present. Man then is in every sense superior, in organization as well as in intellectual powers, to all other animals; and the degree of resemblance to him, as thus superior, is the main principle of classification adopted at the present day: and upon the whole it will be found that, in proportion as the powers and relations of animals are extensive, their structure resembles that of man. And, with respect to the degrees of this resemblance, it may be observed that occasionally it is so strong, as to constitute all but identity of form, as in some quadrumanous animals, or apes; while in others it is so faint, as to render it questionable whether we are viewing an animate or inanimate body, as in several varieties of sponge. It is evident that the stability of the principle of classification, now described, depends on the permanency of the specific form of animals: and it will be found that nature has guarded this point in so sacred a manner, that after the lapse of thousands of years, the identity of the species may be not only traced, but demonstrated, when nothing but the almost mouldering bones of the individual remain. But this subject will be considered more at large hereafter. As then, in estimating the moral or intellectual characters of particular men, we are not influenced by the consideration of insulated defects or excellences, but of the aggregate powers and qualities of the individual; so, in comparing other animals with man, we ought not to affirm that they approach nearer to the standard of his perfection in proportion as they approach nearer to him in the structure of this or that part, or in the developement of particular powers or qualities; but in proportion to that approximation which results from the balance of their structure and powers considered collectively. And on this principle, however nearly a few of them may resemble him, they never can approach even the confines of an equality of nature; whatever some speculative individuals have presumptuously supposed, or others in their simplicity have feared. Thus the resemblance to the human form, as well internally as externally, is so remarkable in particular species of the ape, that while some philosophers (who however proceeded without a knowledge, or a due con The term poltroon, if not of fancied etymology, (pollice truncatus,) verifies this statement; the Roman soldier who had been deprived of his thumb, being deemed unfit for service. sideration of the true principles of the science concerned in their reasonings) have maintained that the ape and man are but varieties of the same species, or at most but different species of the same genus; others, with an unnecessary anxiety, have laboured to vindicate the supposed insult thus offered to the dignity of human nature, by searching for some fixed and invariable difference in the structure of the orresponding parts of each. But the question is puerile: for let us even suppose that the whole and every part of the structure of the ape were the same as that of man; let every bone, and every muscle, and every fibre of the one correspond exactly with those of the other, not only in form and situation, but also in size and proportion; let the brain itself, that tangible instrument of the intellectual powers, be in structure the counterpart of the human; yet, unless in its functions it resembled that of man, in other words, unless there were associated with it his intellectual peculiarities and the moral and religious sense, to what dreaded conclusion would the closest resemblances lead? However near the approximation in their form, in their nature, there must ever be an immeasurable distance between the two. The ape, compared with man, may indeed be among other animals "proximus huic ;" still however it must be added, "longo sed proximus intervallo." SECTION IV. Early and gradual Developement of the inellectual Faculties of Man. THE helplessness of infancy then is but temporary: and a new scene soon opens to the contemplation of those who have sufficient opportunities of watching the developement of the human character: for, long as is the period, compared with the natural term of his own life, and longer still, compared with the corresponding period in the life of other animals, before man attains the full stature of his mind as well as of his body; he at a very early season begins to manifest the superiority of his intellectual nature: he very soon begins to collect those materials for future use, which, though he will never hereafter be able to call to mind the moment or the circumstances of their accession, he will use as effectually as if he had originally acquired them by industrious and direct attention. It does not fall within the intention of this treatise to attempt to ascertain the period when the first dawn of intelligence enlightens the countenance of the infant; but, undoubtedly, among its earliest beams are those expressive smiles, which, although they are occasioned by the aspect of the mother, and are perhaps only connected with the expectation of an animal pleasure, namely the simple enjoyment of nourishment, yet are soon elicited by other individuals |