us to believe in their arrival. Feelings that have not been experienced must be described by combining those that have; attachment to an inanimate thing, as a house, a garden, or a locality, may be pictured by reference to affection for a person. (See the arts of Subjective Description.)

To induce the belief that from a certain course of action future pleasures or pains will ensue, it is requisite to appeal to something parallel in the experience of those addressed, or to fire the imagination by means of lively descriptions. The evils of disobedience, of sloth, of mendacity, of intemperance, are made intense by strong statements and lively coloring.

The incentives to industry are future comfort, ease, independence, opulence, with all its train; and the avoidance of the opposite evils. The means of securing conviction are examples of successful industry of a kind to make an impression on the hearers, and the working up of their experience so far as it has already gone.

The care of Health is urged as being a prime condition of all enjoyment, and as able to make a small circle of stimulants more satisfying than the greatest luxuries without it; while disease and an exhausted frame are other names for pain and lifeweariness. The means to be employed are temperance, exercise, due remission of labor, and the like; and these are enforced by the weight of experience, example, and authority.

The motives to the pursuit of Knowledge are numerous and various. The applications of it to further all other ends, the dignity it gives to the possessor, the gratification of the natural longings of the intellect, when urged in all the fulness of detail, and expressed in graceful language, constitute some of the finest specimens of oratory.

The following passage, from Sir John Herschel, adduces a variety of powerful incentives to the cultivation of knowledge and literature :

"If I were to pray for a taste which should stand me in stead under every variety of circumstances, and be a source of happiness and cheerfulness to me through life, and a shield against its ills, however things might go amiss, and the world frown upon me, it would be a taste for reading. I speak of it of course only as a

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worldly advantage, and not in the slightest degree as superseding or derogating from the higher office and surer and stronger panoply of religious principles, but as a taste, an instrument, and a mode of pleasurable gratification. Give a man this taste, and the means of gratifying it, and you can hardly fail of making a happy man, unless, indeed, you put into his hands a most perverse selection of books. You place him in contact with the best society in every period of history, with the wisest, the wittiest, with the tenderest, the bravest, and the purest characters who have adorned humanity. You make him a denizen of all nations, a contemporary of all ages. The world has been created for him. It is hardly possible but the character should take a higher and better tone from the constant habit of associating, in thought, with a class of thinkers, to say the least of it, above the average of humanity. It is morally impossible but that the manners should take a tinge of good breeding and civilization from having constantly before one's eyes the way in which the best-bred and the best-informed men have talked and conducted themselves in their intercourse with each other. There is a gentle but perfectly irresistible coercion in the habit of reading, well directed, over the whole tenor of a man's character and conduct, which is not the less effectual because it works insensibly, and because it is really the last thing he dreams of. It civilizes the conduct of men, and suffers them not to remain barbarous."

The gaining of Esteem, Friendship, and a Good Name, like all other valuable ends, demands labor and self-denial. The inducements are the numerous benefits, direct and indirect, arising from the favor and good dispositions of others; these are backed and enforced by examples and appeals to the direct experience of the hearers.

The higher flights of wealth, power, and fame, that place a man on a glittering pinnacle, belong to the Impassioned Ends; there being no necessary correspondence between the labor they cost and the happiness they bring.

The Future Existence of man is the leading object of Religious Oratory. Its nature, being unknown and unknowable, must be shaped by imagination; and the description of it has varied in different ages, being more or less accommodated to the views and feelings of the persons addressed.

Almost all the Virtues have a self-regarding effect, and in so far may be included in the aggregate or associated ends. Truth gains for a man esteem and reliance, enlarges his influence, and facilitates his projects. Being just to others tends to make

others just to us. Acts of kindness obtain for us kindness in return. Our own security is involved in social obedience, and in respect to law and government. This part of the case in favor of virtuous actions is always made prominent in the Oratory of Moral Suasion.

114. Secondly, Sympathy with the Pleasures and the Pains of others.

When we enter into the pain of another person, we are prompted to work for the alleviation of that pain, as if we ourselves were the sufferers. Although the outgoings of this tendency of our constitution are often self-regarding, it must be viewed as containing a purely disinterested impulse; under it we absolutely give away a portion of our own labor, and resign a portion of our own happiness, without any return or any thought of a return.

The principle extends to pleasures also; the sight of another's happiness would prompt us to aid in continuing the blissful state; and this without any view to our own good. But the alleviation of pain is the more absorbing interest.

To rouse sympathy, or call into exercise the disinterested impulses, an orator presents a strong and intelligible case of distress, misery, or sorrow. It is not every description of suffering, that will bring forth a pitying response from every class of hearers. Each one can best enter into the miseries that he has oftenest experienced and felt most; the pains that find universal sympathy are the pains of universal human nature-hunger, cold, physical disabilities, disease, poverty, danger to life, loss of objects of affection, public shame. If a misery unfamiliar to those addressed is to call for pity, it must be brought home by comparison with something familiar and known.

The pleadings of philanthropy for the poor, the outcast, the neglected, the degraded, are a series of delineations of human misery.

The awakening of sympathy towards suffering is also of avail in stimulating men to fulfil their duties and engagements to others. Hence this is a large instrumentality in Moral Sua

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sion. It is the mode of procuring the degree of self-sacrifice required in the ordinary obligations of life.

The appeal of pity was recognized in ancient oratory as the argument ad misericordiam. It is the common resource in the defence of criminals, and in saving people from the consequences of their own misconduct.

115. Thirdly, the Emotions and Passions; as, Fear, Love, Self-esteem, Power, Anger, Ridicule, Esthetic Emotion, Religion, the Moral Sentiment.

In one respect, these may be viewed as pleasures or pains, and as attracting or deterring us, according to their felt intensity, whether they be actual or anticipated. Such are the pleasures of affection, of self-complacency, revenge, fine art; and the pains of sorrow, humiliation, remorse. In another aspect they take on the character of passion or inflammation, disturbing the fair calculations of the will, and inducing us to act without reference to our pleasures or our pains.

(1.) Fear, Terror, or Dread. Whatever pains us is an object of avoidance, according to our sense of the pain. This is not fear, but the usual attitude of precaution against harm. But, on certain occasions, pain in prospect is accompanied with a tremulous and unhinging excitement, under which the powers are enfeebled, and rational calculation is interfered with; every other interest being sacrificed to the morbid impulse.

Terror is a powerful agent in overcoming the contumacious and self-willed disposition, and is made use of in government, in religion, and in education. The passion may be excited by the mere prospect of great suffering, but still more effectually by unknown dangers, uncertainties, and vast possibilities of evil in matters keenly felt by the hearers. The approach of unexperienced calamities is apt to engender panic; under a plague, or epidemic, people may be easily frightened into measures, that in cool moments they would repudiate. The sick and the depressed can readily be inspired with religious and moral terrors.

History furnishes many examples of political oratory succeeding through the excitement of terror.

The dislike to innovation and to relaxing the severity of general rules, often takes the form of panic or dread, with exaggeration of the consequences. Hence it is a usual device of Rhetoric, to paint future possibilities in cases where no great immediate evil can be proved. This is exemplified in the speech of Brutus :

"6 And, since the quarrel

Will bear no color for the thing he is,
Fashion it thus; that what he is, augmented,
Would run to these and these extremities:
And therefore think him as a serpent's egg,

Which, hatched, would, as his kind, grow mischievous;
And kill him in the shell."

(2.) Love, Tenderness, Affection, Admiration, Esteem. The outgoings of the tender emotion add a new charm to what pleases us, and we are then said to contract love, or affection, for persons or for things. A still higher mixture of approving sentiment leads to esteem, admiration, and reverence. To raise our affection or esteem for persons, the orator labors to set forth everything that is amiable and admirable in their character and connections. Such eulogistic oratory has to be supported by evidence, embellished by suitable illustration, and guarded against the reaction of envy.

The following passage is a sample of the art of extolling by suitable circumstances. The theme is Greece.

"The interest of Grecian history is unexhausted and inexhaustible. As a mere story, hardly any other portion of authentic history can compete with it. Its characters, its situations, the very march of its incidents, are Epic. It is an heroic poem, of which the personages are peoples. It is also, of all histories of which we know so much, the most abounding in consequences to us who now live. The true ancestors of the European nations (it has been well said) are not those from whose blood they are sprung, but those from whom they derive the richest portion of their inheritance. The battle of Marathon, even as an event in English history, is more important than the battle of Hastings. If the issue of that day had been different, the Britons and the Saxons might still have been wandering in the woods."

The ancients recognized, as a department of oratory, the Epideictic, or Demonstrative, by which was meant general commendation and its opposite, with no immediate aim except