or inclination. Quis rem tam veterem pro certo affirmet? Livy. Mediocribus et queis ignoscas vitiis teneor. Hor. Denique; her cle, aufugerim, potius quam redeam, si eo mihi redeundum sciam. Ter. Quid facias talem sortitus, Pontice, servum ? Juv.

2. Agent indefinite, or not limited to any certain individual. Neque is sum qui disputem. Nullum est animal, præter hominem, quod habet notitiam aliquam Dei. Parvulæ respublicæ sunt bellicosa, et quod vires sint exiguæ, sæpe insidiis circumvenire hostes tentant. In these, and similar sentences, the nature, or kind only of the agents is expressed. The same mood is used, when the phrase is turned impersonally, and the agent is put in the ablative; as, Erant quibus videretur.

3. Time indefinite, either as to its duration, or the parts of it at which any particular circumstances occurred. This includes, of course, a reference to the different objects of action, when spoken of in a general, or indefinite manner. Quæ in hoc libro scripserim. Cum me rogaret ut adessem. Cic. Cum me rogabat would express a very different idea. In Cumano cum essem venit ad me Hortensius. Cic.

Still it must be acknowledged that there is some variety in the practice of Latin writers, with regard to the subjunctive mood. Instances of the indicative being used, according to the Greek idiom, in a subjunctive meaning, (as has been already considered,) occur frequently in Plautus and Terence, who translated Greek into Latin; and even Cicero, though very rarely, uses the same form of expression: as, Priusquam de republica dicere incipio. But exceptions of this kind do not invalidate the general principle on which the regular use of this mood is founded.

Of the other moods, and the tenses, in Latin, nothing occurs worth mentioning, connected with the subject of this Essay.

I may observe, however, that, by taking the imperative for the original form of the Latin verb, the business of conjugating would be rendered much more simple, than by the circuitous method which grammarians have adopted. Thus from Audi, by the addition only of certain syllables, we have audio, audiebam, audivi, &c.

Although the modern languages of the south-west of Europe afford no original authority, on this subject, yet we shall find that they are all constructed upon the same principles that we have already considered.

11. Italian.

In the Italian language, which occupies the place that the Latin formerly held, we may expect to find the strongest resemblance of the common parent tongue. And it will, accordingly, be found

that almost all the inflections of the Italian verbs may be formed, by adding certain terminations to the imperative mood. Thus, imp. ama, indic. amo-amai-amero; subj. ami-amassi, &c. &c. 12. Spanish.

Next to the Italian, the Spanish may be considered as retaining most of the ancient Latin form, and such it appears to have, according to the general principles that have been laid down. Thus, imp. habla, speak; indic. hablo-hablāba-hable—hablarè; subj. hāble-hablarìa-hablāse, &c.

The Portuguese dialect of this language inflects its verbs on the same principle. Thus, imp. ama; indic. amo-amava ;— amei-amarei; subjunct. ame-amara-amaria, &c.

It will be seen, in all these instances, that the inflection is much simpler than by commencing with the indicative, or the infinitive.

13. French.

Although the French departs farthest from the Latin manner of terminating its verbs, yet we find, in this, as in the other languages, that the imperative is the simplest form. Thus, imp. aime; indic. aime-aimai-aimerai; subjunct. aime-aimerais, &c.

I have thus endeavoured to follow the course of nature, in the formation of moods; proceeding from the simplest elements of sound to the compound words which represent a combination of ideas. And, from the consideration of verbs, in those languages which are most commonly known, we see that the principles of nature prevail in them all. It is fair to argue, from this specimen, that the same order is observed in languages with which we are less acquainted. Whether any practical use may be made of this theory I shall not say; but it is not unpleasant to trace the operations of nature, in the modes of speech, unfettered by the dogmas, and limited terms of art. The mind is thus raised above mere grammatical rules to the consideration of its own faculties and exertions; while the contrast of simpler tongues, with those of more elaborate structure suggests reflections upon the primitive character of one nation, and the refined science of another.

Belfast College, May, 1819.

W. NEILSON:

ON THE ANTIQUITY OF ALCHYMY.

HOUGH I am no alchymist, yet as a relaxation from severer studies, I have read with considerable attention the works of the most celebrated writers on alchymy; and, as the result of this reading, am induced to think, that there is as much historical evidence for the truth of this art, as for any past transaction, which is believed on the testimony of those that record it. I was much gratified, therefore, to find, in the preceding number of the Classical Journal, the arguments of those who contend that the Egyptians possessed this art, displayed with so much ability by Sir William Drummond.

Certain very respectable authorities, however, for the great antiquity of this art, appear not only to have escaped the notice of that gentleman, but of all the modern writers with whom I am acquainted. The authorities are these: Manetho, in the 4th book, p. 66, of his astrological poem, entitled Apotelesmatica, has the following lines:

Και μουνη Κυθέρεια συνη καλῳ Φαέθοντι

Ρεκτηρας χρυσοίο, και Ινδογενούς ελέφαντος
Εργοπονους δεικνυσι

i. e. ❝ Venus alone, in conjunction with the beautiful Phaethon (the sun), indicates MAKERS OF GOLD, and workers of Indian ivory." This Manetho lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, to whom also he dedicated his work.

In the second place, the Empress Eudocia, in her Greek Dictionary, p. 108, published by Villoison, observes as follows, concerning the so much celebrated Golden Fleece: 40vUS O Μιτυληναίος, ανθρωπον φησι γεγενησθαι παιδαγωγον του Φρύξου, ονοματι Κριον και δέρας χρυσόμαλλον, ουχ ως ποιητικως φερεται, αλλα βιβλίον ην εν δέρμασι γεγραμμενον, περιεχον όπως δει γενεσθαι δια χημειας χρυσουν. εικοτως ουν οι τότε λεγει, χρυσουν ωνόμαζον αυτο δερας, δια την εξ AUTOU EVEрyειav. i. e. " Dionysius the Mitylenean says, that a man αυτού ενεργειαν. whose name was Crius,' was the pedagogue of Phryxus, and that the sheep-skin had a golden fleece, not conformably to poetic assertion, but that it was a book written on skins, containing the manner in which gold ought to be made, according to the chymic art. Justly therefore, did those of that period denominate the skin golden, through the energy proceeding from it." This Diony

'This word, as the learned reader well knows, signifies a ram.

sius, as Fabricius shows (in Biblioth. Græc.), lived somewhat prior to Cicero.

66

In the third place, Plotinus, in his treatise On Matter, speaks of the analysis of other metals into gold, as a thing possible to be effected. For he says, Analysis also shows the existence of matter [i. e. of the formless and ultimate subject of bodies]. Just as if a pot should be analysed into gold, but gold into water; and water when corrupted, requires an analogous process." Και η ανάλυσις δε οιον ει η φιαλη εις τον χρυσον ο δε χρυσος εις ύδωρ, και το ύδωρ δε φθειρομένον το ανάλογον απαιτεί. What Plotinus here says of the analysis into gold, is perfectly conformable to the assertion of Albertus Magnus, as cited by Becher in his Physica Subterranea, p. 319. For his words are, "Non dari rem elementatam, in cujus ultima substantiatione non reperiatur aurum. That all metals likewise may be analysed into water is the doctrine of Plato, who in his Timæus says, "that water is twofold; one kind of which is humid, but the other fusile.” And he adds, “ that among all those which we denominate fusile waters, that which becoming most dense from attenuated and equable parts, is of a uniform kind, and participates of a splendid and yellow color, ist that most honored and valuable possession gold, which is usually impelled through a rock.”

In the last place, in the selections from Chemical Greek Manuscripts, in the Bibliotheca Græca of Fabricius, Tom. 12. p. 765, there is an extract from a treatise of one Olympiodorus to Petasius, king of Armenia, in which among other things it is said, "that the art of making gold was most diligently concealed by the Egyptians; that those who were skilled in the art, alone exercised it for the use of the king; and that these men accompanied him in his wars, in order to supply his treasury." For the sake of the learned reader, however, and as the extract does not appear to be much known, I will transcribe the whole, as given by Fabricius. Ολυμπιόδωρου φιλοσοφου Αλεξανδρέως προς Πετασιον τον βασιλεα Αρμενίας εις το κατ' ενέργειαν Ζωσίμου όσα απο Ερμου και των φιλοσοφων ήσαν ειρημενα. Incipit: Γίνεται η ταριχεια από μηνος Μεχιρ κε και εως Μεσωρι κε, &c. In hoc apospasmatio multa non indigna relatu, quæ excerpere juvat. Έθος γαρ τοις αρχαιοις συγ καλυπτειν την αληθειαν, και τα παντα τοις ανθρωποις ευδηλα δια αλληγο γιων τίνων και τεχνης ενφιλοσοφου αποκρυπτειν, ου μονον δε οτι τας τις μιας ταύτας τεχνας τη αφέγγει αυτων και σκοτεινοτατη εκδόσει συνεσκιασαν, αλλά και αυτά τα κοινα ρηματα δι αλλων τινων ρημάτων μετεφρα σαν, εις τουτο αυτο Πλατωνα και Αριστοτέλην αλληγορήσαντες. -Auτην δηλαδή την ψαμμον ανωθεν ουσιουσαν, ηντινα οι αρχαιοι δια το κυριον ονομα επεθηκαν λιθαργυρον. και εις αυτήν εστιν ευρείν και το τετρασύλλαβον, και το ενναγραμμου γνους οτι τα σκωριδια εστι

το όλον μυστήριον, όλοι γάρ εις αυτά κρέμανται και αποβλέπουσι, και τα μυρια αινίγματα εις αυτα ανατρέχει, και αι βιβλοι οι τοσαύται αυτά αινίττονται.αυται αι Αιγυπτίων γραφαι, και ποιήσεις και δόξαι, χρησμοι τε δαιμονων και εκθεσεις προφήτων. Sæpius citatur Zosimus, sed et Democritus, Agathodæmon, et Maria. Zosimi dictum ab aliis etiam laudatum : εαν μη τα σώματα ασωμάτωσης και ποίησης τα δυο εν, ουδέν των προσδοκωμένων εσται.

Sed quæ ex ejusdem τη τελευταία αποχή προς Θεοσεβειαν afferuntur, adscribenda sunt, quæ et infra num. 45. repetuntur, nihilo magis integra: Ολον το της Αιγυπτου βασιλειον, ω γυναι, απο των δυο τουτων τεχνων συνεστηκε, των τε κηρύκων και των φυσικων ψαμμων, η γαρ καλούμενη θεία τέχνη, τουτεστιν η δογματική περι ην ασχολούται απαντες οι ζητουντες τα χειροτμηματα 1 απάντα, και τας τιμίας τέχνας, τας τέσσαρας φημι, δοκουσιν τι ποιειν μονοις εξεδόθη τοις ιερεύσιν. η γαρ φυσικη ψαμμουργικη βασιλεων ην. ωστε και εαν συμβῇ ιερεα η σοφόν λεγόμενον ερμηνευσαντα τα εκ των παλαιων, η απο προγονων εκληρονομησεν, και εχων και ιδων την γνωσιν αυτών την ακωλυτον, ουκ εποιει ετιμωρειτο γαρ. ωσπερ οι τεχνίται οι επισταμενοι βασιλικον τύπτειν νομισμα, ουχ εαυτοις τυπτουσιν, επει τιμωρούνται. ούτω και επι τοις βασιλευσι των Αιγυπτίων, οι τεχνιται της εψήσεως, οι έχοντες την γνωσιν της αμμοπλε σιας και ακολουθίας, ουχ εαυτοις εποίουν, αλλ' εις αυτο τουτο εστρατευοντο εις τους θησαυρους εργαζομενοι. ειχον δε και ιδιους αρχοντας επικειμενους επανω των θησαυρών, και αρχιστρατήγους, και πολλην τυραννίαν της εψήσεως. νομος γαρ ην Αιγυπτίοις, μηδέ εγγράφως αυτα τινα εκδιδόναι. Τινες ουν μεμφονται Δημοκριτον και τους αρχαίους, ως μη μνημονευ σαντας τουτων των δυο τεχνων, αλλα μόνων των λεγομενων τιμίων. ματην δε αυτους μέμφονται. ου γαρ ηδύναντο φιλοι οντες των βασιλέων Αιγυπ του, και τα πρωτεία εν προφητική αυχούντες, πως ηδύναντο αναφανδόν μαθηματα κατα των βασιλέων δημοσια εκθεσθαι, και δούναι άλλοις πλουτου τυραννίδα. ουτε ει ηδύναντο εξεδίδουν, εφθόνουν γαρ. μονοις δε Ιουδαίοις εξον ην λαθρα ταυτα ποιειν και γράφειν και εκδιδοναι· αμέλει γουν ευρισκομεν Θεοφίλον τον Θεογενους, γράψαντα ολα τα της χειρο γραφιας ευτυχεία, και Μαρίας την καμινογραφίαν, και άλλους Ιουδαίους, και Συνέσιος προς Διόσκορον γραφων, &c. Ad Ptolemai Bibliothecas allegat his verbis : καλείται δε και παρθενος γη, και γη αιμα τωδης. Ταυτα δε ευρήσεις εν ταις Πτολεμαίου βιβλιοθήκαις.

The most remarkable circumstance in this extract is, that permission should be given by the Egyptian kings, to the Jews alone, latently to practise, to write about, and to publish this art. Perhaps this most singular exception in favor of the Jews, was owing to

• Α1. χειροτεχνηματα, vel χειροκμητα.

2 This Dioscorus was a priest of Serapis in Alexandria, so that he lived prior to the destruction of the ancient temples. See the treatise of Synesius to him, in the 7th vol. of Fabricius.