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ture in general as its portrait, nor at the Jewish nation in the series of their history, nor at the Gentile world, though aliens from the commonwealth of Israel. And though the accounts, deplorable as they are, might be truly given concerning many of the Jewish and Gentile nations, and even of Christian nations too, yet never without some particular exceptions. And, indeed, when, in any age of the world, such universal characters of vice are drawn by the sacred writers, or by any writers, they generally refer not to all living, but to a certain great number of profane persons appearing openly in such times and places.

The very drawing of such characters implies a very great sense of the infamy of them in the breast of him who draws them, who is, at least, supposed himself to be an exception; and not only an exception, but, by the detestation he expresses of this monstrous depravation, to be a real example of the contrary virtues.

In the account the Apostle Paul has given of the vices of the Heathens, in the first chapter, no one can suppose that he meant to charge every

all that black catalogue of heinous sins; or that there were not in his esteem, instances of persons among them innocent of every one of them, and even commendable for all the contrary virtues. And in producing these characters of Jews from Jewish writers, he, doubtless, (I cannot doubt it myself,) intended the same exceptions.

All that I have endeavoured at, is to represent what appears to me the genuine sense and extent of such descriptions as these in Scripture, that to whomsoever they may be truly applied, (as, alas! they are too often just to far greater numbers at all times than charity and virtue would wish,) yet they are not to be taken for the genuine and natural portrait of human nature, and the universal character of all men, even in very corrupt times and nations.

To found general doctrines concerning human nature, the work of God, from such descriptions of the character of the great multitude of vicious persons, is injurious to the Divine Being who formed us, the source of gloomy thoughts which terrify many

good and virtuous minds, and is deviating from the true meaning and scope of the sacred writers. In general the estimation and judgment of the characters of all particular persons are in the hands of God, who will impute to no man any evil but what he is truly guilty of; who sees, distinctly, the various degrees of virtue and vice which are in every mind and life, and who will not depreciate or overlook the least good that is cultivated and practised by any of his rational creatures.

It is repugnant to the feelings of every well-disposed mind, to form the most shocking ideas of the character of its nature. The honour of that should be consulted for the honour of its great Author; and though it be found stained with great impurity, yet, let it ever be held a sacred truth, that its depravation is wilful, and arises not from the necessity and impulse of its divine formation, but from the voluntary abuse and perversion of its faculties.

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SIR,

JAMES MANNING.

Bristol, Nov. 1, 1821. WAS long of opinion that the

ses; the arguments of many former writers appeared to me almost conclusive upon that head. I have been lately reconsidering the subject, and think there are many strong reasons to support the conclusion, that it was not produced earlier than the Babylonish captivity. One of the chief of these is, the machinery which is employed as an introduction to the whole. By the most judicious interpreters, this is admitted to be allegorical; the allegory, however, must be derived from the notions entertained by the writer, or the age in which the events are supposed to have taken place, upon such subjects. Now it appears to me, that if Moses had been either the writer or the compiler of this purely theistical and Unitarian poem, and had known, or believed in the existence of such a powerful agent of evil as Satan is here represented to be, he would certainly have introduced him, by name, in the account he has given us of the introduction of sin into the world: this would, surely, have been more intelligible than putting language into the mouth of an animal who never had the power of

Freedom of Human Agency.

speech. What Moses meant, we have no means of knowing but from the language he has used; and it is certain that he has not given the slightest intimation that the tempter was some superior being concealed under the form of a serpent. The term Satan is a mere Hebrew word, and signifies an adversary, an enemy, or accuser: the first time it occurs in the Bible is 1 Chron. xxi. 1, where he is said to tempt David to number the people; the second and third times are in the book of Job; the fourth time is Psalm cix. 6, where the enemies of that prince are represented as saying, "Set thou a wicked man over him, and let Satan" (an adversary) “stand at his right hand." The only remaining places in which this word occurs in the Old Testament are in the first and second verses of the third chapter of the prophecy of Zechariah. The late period in which this word was used among the Jews, is an argument against the book of Job being written by Moses; and, in connexion with the manner in which it occurs in the prophecy of Zechariah, which was delivered after the return of the Jews to their own land, a presumptive argument that the said book was not written before the Babylonish captivity, and as it made a part of Ezra's canon, the most probable supposition is, that it was produced during that period.

It is, however, very possible, that the introductory and concluding chapters may have been added by some writer, soon after the return from the Babylonish captivity, or during its continuance; and that all the rest of this venerable poem may be as old, or even older than the age of Moses. I am not sufficiently acquainted with the writings of learned Jews to know if any of them have adopted this opinion. If you should insert these brief thoughts in your valuable work, perhaps some of your correspondents will endeavour to throw some light upon the subject,-should that be the case it will be very acceptable to

SIR,

E. BUTCHER.

ALTHOUGH I think with your correspondent S., (XVI. 596— 599,) that such questions as those of Liberty and Necessity are not very

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proper for a popular work, I am inclined, with your permission, to suggest a mode of defending the freedom of human agency, which, if not conclusive, is perhaps not wholly absurd. I think it may be admitted, that the doctrine of Necessity should not be affirmed, except its truth could be made absolutely certain; because it will hardly be denied, that bad consequences may be the result of its admission. It is plainly contrary to the received opinions of mankind, and to those opinions which, I think, have been the basis of the belief of all mankind in a future state. The dissolution of the body of a man was as obvious to the senses of all men in all ages, as it is to us now; and there could appear to be no sensible difference between such a dissolution and that of the body of any other animal. How came it then, that an universal belief pervaded all nations, ages, tongues and people, that for man, and man only, there would be a future state? Only, I think, because man was supposed to be the master of his own actions, and that his conduct, whether good or bad, was the result of avoidable determinations. Now, the belief of all mankind, concerning subjects of their own consciousness, is surely entitled to most weighty consideration. It is in vain to compare this opinion to that of men concerning the rising, setting and motion of the sun, since that notion applies not to consciousness, and is a similar error to that of a man who thinks the trees move when he is sailing down a river. If it should hereafter be discovered that food does not nourish men, I shall then think that a parallel case is found; for men have always believed that food nourishes them; and when they are found to have erred in this, I will admit that they may have erred in their notions of liberty, of which they have ever thought themselves conscious. Having made these remarks, I proceed to state the way in which I think the freedom of human agency may be defended, always bearing in mind, that I think it reasonable, on such a question, to demand that probabilities, on this side, should be

met only with certainties on the other side, from the consideration of possi ble consequences.

Reason is conversant only with

facts, and without facts she can do nothing. In her purest and most conclusive exercise, on mathematical truth, facts are her sine quâ non. With the liberty of human agency, therefore, reason has nothing to do previously to the establishment of the facts of the case. Whence do we collect evidence of the existence of this liberty? Only by consciousness. If, therefore, it exist, it is a mere fact, in the establishment or overthrow of which reason has nothing to do. Othello's occupation is gone. As to the evidence of this freedom, as a fact, to each individual his own consciousness is the first and best evidence, and then the testimony of others, as to their consciousness. Look at this testimony. Is it not nearly universal? The feeling of remorse in men, in all ages, is conclusive. We do not feel remorse because we catch a cold or a fever, though such as are fond of life may feel sorrow on such an occasion; but who does not know that remorse and sorrow are two very different feelings? It is of the essence of remorse that he who feels it thinks that a different determination, concerning certain actions, was in his power; and I think every one who reflects upon the nature of remorse must admit this. Dr. Priestley seems to admit that even Necessarians, from former association, feel remorse, but suggests, that a pure Necessarian, acting up to his principles, would feel none; but all his remarks shew, that, even in his opinion, no speculations can destroy the feeling of remorse. So strong and so universal is the consciousness of freedom!

I am well aware of the subtile argument of Jonathan Edwards, that every present volition must either be determined by the existing motives, or by a previous volition; going back in an indissoluble chain of connexion to the first volition. But until we know something more of the human mind, this cannot be admitted to be a demonstration. For why should any volition be determined by motives? The mind in determining is not destitute of consideration; but that motives determine it, and not its own agency in the survey of many considerations, ought to be proved. I reject the term motives, as applied to the considerations under the survey of the human

mind. Motive is something that moves; and to apply it to the considerations in the view of the human mind in action, is to take the very matter in dispute for granted. The imagination immediately plays tricks with the word, and converts the motive into the agent. In point of fact, does not this argument of Mr. Edwards' (far the most powerful assertor of Necessity) take for granted, that we are able to analyze all the operations of the human mind? If it do, I think it is not entitled to our confidence; and he thought it demonstration, as he entitled the chapter containing it, the impossibility of Free Will. Now it is evident that this assertion implies no less than that we know that it is impossible for God to create a free agent. Do we, indeed, know this?

Now nothing seems more clear to me than this, that it has been the belief of the freedom of human actions, that has laid the foundation of the belief of a future state in every age and country; and that this belief alone preserves the expectation of such a state amongst mankind. I say this with the highest respect for the characters and talents of such as are advocates for the opposite doctrine, and leave the reasoning to the judg ment of the reader.

HOMO.

P.S. I do not perceive that the Edinburgh definition of Cause and Effect, as quoted in your last Number, [XVI. 700,] by Dr. Morell, at all affects the subject in dispute; it is, besides, rather a definition of the manner how we obtain the evidence of the existence of Cause and Effect, than of what constitutes Cause and Effect. The dispute about what we call Liberty and Necessity is not at all a merely verbal dispute; but one concerning a most momentous distinction. If the conduct of man be the certain result of his bodily and mental constitution and circumstances, of which he is not the author, the doctrine of Philosophical Necessity is true; if otherwise, it is false. Is this a mere verbal question? I confess, I can conceive of no question that was ever agitated by man, less entitled to the character of a play upon words than this is.

Cursory Remarks on the Island Borneo.

-Cursory Remarks on the Island Borneo, made during a Residence of nearly Three Years thereon; and during Voyages made to different Places on it, and the neighbouring Islands.

E

[Referred to in Unitarian Fund Report, 1821. See Vol. XVI. p. 740.] AXTENT and geographical situation.-From Tanjong Salatan, S. E. pt. lat. 4° 11' South; to Tanjong Sampan-Mangis, N. pt. lat. 70 20 North, being in diameter, N. and S., 691 miles.

From Point Kaneeoongan, in lon. 119° 10' East; to Tanjong Apec, in lon. 108° 40′ East; being in diameter, East and West, 580 miles.

General appearance.-Two chains of mountains, the highest of which are granitic, beginning in the S. E. and S. W. corners of the island, and running generally parallel to the coast, though at a considerable distance, and leaving an alluvial border, containing plains of great extent, and moderately elevated and undulating lands between it and the sea. The Eastern chain is of regular appearance and moderate elevation, increasing as you proceed to the northward; the Western chain begins in insulated hills, chiefly of the table appearance, though some few of a conical shape are to be seen amongst it, and it increases in height and regularity of appearance on proceeding to the northward, where the two chains approximate to each other, in an arched form, leaving the vast mountain on the north coast, called Keeney-Balloo, as it were the key of the arch, or rather semi-circle. This mountain is visible at upwards of 100 miles' distance in clear weather, having myself seen it appearing of considerable height at 95 miles' distance. A little to the southward of this mountain, the great river takes its rise, of which the river of Banjer Massin is the second branch in magnitude; that called the Great Dyac River being of sufficient depth at its entrance, and for upwards of 150 miles inland, to admit ships of any size or burthen. This great river, on reaching the level lands, divides into three large branches, of which are what is called the River of Banjer Massin and that of the Great and Little Dyacs. This noble river, affording access to the interior of

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this vast island, is navigable for large boats, nearly 500 miles from its mouth; and were the country ever to become populous and civilized, its importance would be enhanced accordingly. Besides this principal river there are numerous others falling into the sea all round its coasts; some of which, as the river of Pontiana on the S. W., and Borneo Proper on the N. W. coasts, both, and particularly the last, are much larger than the Thames. Some of the mountains on the N. W. coast are volcanic, but not of a violent description, and earthquakes are rarely felt, and never commit devastation in the manner frequently effected in Java by them. Both hills and valleys are fully wooded, except where spotted by human cultivation. The vegetable productions are numerous and important, though the scantiness of the population renders them, as it were, useless to that population themselves, and also to their neighbours. Among the valuable timber trees are the following: teak, mahogany, manchineel, iron wood, ebony, lignum-vitæ, blackwood, greenheart, camphor, cedar, sassafras, bliary, a wood nearly incorruptible in any possible situation, and resisting the attacks of the teredo-navalis, or sea worm, for many years. Many dye and medicinal woods also are to be found in abundance; and the botanical productions of the country will amply reward those who shall be enabled to explore its treasures. The staple article of vegetable produce for exportation, is pepper, and after it are camphor, rattans, canes, frankincense, lignum, aloes, the excellent red dye, known in commerce by the name of dragon's-blood, and which is manufactured by boiling the seed-nuts of a peculiar species of rattan or cane. Sugar cane is large and plentiful, but only reared for the purpose of eating, or rather sucking, in its raw state by the natives. Sago is manufactured by them, but to little extent, although the palm abounds: an extensive and valuable pearl-fishery, existing on the north coast, would be of immense advantage, if the pirates were not to harass and capture the fishermen. Bees' wax is an article of considerable export to China and Bengal. The edible bird's nest is found in considerable quantities in the caverns of the mountains, and is very

valuable in the Chinese market. Coffee has been lately introduced, and will amply repay its cultivation; indigo also would become very important under a free and enlightened system of government. All the numerous varieties of fruit, produced in the islands of the Archipelago, are common to Borneo. The mangustin and pomegranate appear, however, to be superior to the same fruit elsewhere. The rivers and coasts abound with fish of many different sorts, most of which are extremely good. The alligator and crocodile are numerous in the rivers, but are very little feared by the natives, and, indeed, may be said to be very harmless. Although the neighbouring islands of Java and Sumatra have the tiger in abundance, yet Borneo is perfectly exempt from wild beasts, of any dangerous kinds a small species of bear is found in it, and the rhinoceros exists in the interior. Deer are very numerous, being seen in herds of many thousands. Wild swine are also extremely numerous: and wild buffaloes, and almost every species of the monkey, from the orangootan to the smallest species known. Snakes of many kinds exist, but not in very great quantity, and few are of a venomous species. The doubleheaded snake, I have seen a pretty large specimen of, but whether it be a lusus naturæ or otherwise, I am not able to say with any degree of certainty. Gold is generally distributed through the whole extent of the country, and the mining for it affords employment to little short of 100,000 Chinese emigrants, who are constantly coming from and returning to China with their gains. The natives confine their searches after this precious metal to the sands of the rivers in the dry season. The import of Bornean gold into Calcutta has been for some years (previous to the Dutch restoration to the controul of the Malayan Archipelago) upwards of £50,000 annually. The annual produce of the island is probably upwards of £500,000, the chief part of which goes to China. Copper has lately been found, and is now wrought in the western parts of the island. Iron ore, of most excellent quality, is abundant, and though but partially wrought by the ignorant natives, it would, in the hands of Europeans, suffice to supply all the Archi

pelago. Pit coal is in great abundance, and so near the surface as to be exposed to the air to a great extent in several places. Asphaltum or earth oil, which forms so valuable an article of produce in Pegu, is here in abundance, but quite neglected. Platina is found among the gold, but thrown away by the natives. Though many other valuable mineral productions doubtless exist, yet as being unknown to the natives, I shall close the list with the diamond, which is found in various parts of the country, chiefly in that of the Aborigines, in considerable abundance, and of different sizes and water. One of the largest diamonds in the world, weighing 367 carats, is in the possession of the petty Malay Prince of Luceadana.

The population of Borneo consists of Aborigines, under the names of Pani, Dyac, Ngaju, Idaan, Buguet, &c., possessing the whole interior of the country, and south and north-eastern coasts. The Pani are the most ferocious, devouring the slain, and sometimes some or all of the prisoners after a battle. The Dyac is a step further advanced, or rather less degraded, in intelligence and civilization, and having had considerable acquaintance with them, I can speak of their habits with a greater degree of certainty than those of any of the others. The Buguet, or Bukit, are timid, and inhabit (as their name implies) the secluded glens of the mountains, and on the appearance of strangers abandon their huts and hide themselves in the caverns. Salt is exchanged with some of them in the most inaccessible places of the country, for from one half to the whole of its weight in gold.

The coasts are mostly inhabited by Malayan, Javanese and Chinese colonists; the two former under independent princes, generally of Arabic, missionary, trader, or pirate extraction. Pontiana, on the west coast of the island, and now one of the most flourishing, was formed early in the last century by an Arab pirate, with the crews of his fleet. Banjar Massin was founded by an expatriated Javan prince about five centuries ago, and is the most civilized and populous state on the island, after Borneo Proper, which is chiefly Chinese, though the prince be nominally a Malay. The Abori

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