66 PRACTICE OF ENGRAVING AND MULTIPLYING DIES. the parallel ruler and triangle recommended by him, or the T square and "set" recommended by myself to be used in drawing on paper, are of any use in drawing isometrical perspective on wood; because the drawing comes so near the edge of the block that there is no margin for the parallel ruler to work on, and for the same reason the T square and set" cannot be applied to the lower part of the drawing. Another block might certainly be placed beside that on which you are at work; but this in practice is but a troublesome way of proceeding. The best instrument for drawing this projection on wood (not on paper) is a light delicate steel square, with a moving blade, and of the form of a joiner's square, or rather the form of a carpenter's bevel. When the blade is fixed by a neat screw at the proper angle, all the lines, however near to the sides of the block, may be drawn without any trouble, and with the greatest facility. As the manner of representing objects in isometrical perspective will, as before observed, soon be much employed in publications, if Mr. Elliot has not made such an instrument, and thinks it worth while to do so for the use of engravers, I shall be happy to make a drawing of the form which I consider most suitable for the purpose. I must say, that the publication of Mr. Jopling's treatise has given me a stronger attachment to isometrical perspective than much practice in the method had previously done; and it may be gratifying to the lovers of this projection to know, that, among other instances of its utility being appreciated, when thoroughly known, is the following: -While I was conversing one day with the clerks in the office of an eminent architect, the conversation turned upon the manner of representing objects in an architectural work recently published. These objects (which were in isometrical perspective) they looked upon as being quite ridiculous, and only a failure in an attempt at bird's-eye radial perspective. I, however, undertook to show that the engravings in question were strictly correct, and projected on principle; and to establish this point I sent them the "Practice of Isometrical Perspective," with a strong invitation to study it care 187 fully. The next time that I called I was much gratified to find that the book had worked such a change-that the office drawings were now being made in isometrical perspective. With regard to perspective in general, it is much to be regretted that there is no intelligible work on radial perspective, in which the rules are explained in a simple manner, such as in Mr. Jopling's work on "Isometrical Perspective." It will scarcely be believed, that many of the principal draughtsmen in the offices of architects have been in the practice for years of representing objects in all sorts of perspective, without at all knowing the first principles of the art, or rather method; or without even knowing the meaning of the plane of projection. But this only leads us to the painful reflection respecting the manner of conveying instruction to youth, that it has always been in any way rather than in such a form as to address itself to the reason; and, therefore, we do not wonder at persons thus taught being in after-life mere mechanical machines, operating without ever knowing, or wishing to know, the "why and the wherefore." I remain, sir, Yours respectfully, Bayswater, June 6, 1834. R. ON THE ANCIENT AND MODERN PRAĆTICE OF ENGRAVING AND MULTIPLYING DIES. BY W. WYON, ESQ., A.R.A., CHIEF ENGRAVER TO THE ROYAL MINT. [From continuation of Report, in the Athenæum, of a Paper read by Mr. Wyon at the Society of Arts, 13th May last.] With respect to the ancient practice of engraving and multiplying dies, we have very little information handed down to us, and as the coins themselves attest the employment of very able artists, it is singular that we should be unacquainted with any of their names; there is, it is believed, but one exception, which is found upon a coin of Crete. We are equally uncertain as to the materials with which the dies were made. It is, however, related that ancient dies have been found at different periods; and Count Caylus mentions that one came into his possession, which was composed of copper, tin, zinc, and lead, in equal proportions. But 188 PRACTICE OF ENGRAVING AND MULTIPLYING DIES. Mr. Wyon stated that he was not aware of any compound of these metals capable of resisting the force of the blow necessary for making a perfect impression in the metals used for coinage. An ancient die found at the temple of Nismes, probably of the same materials, was submitted to a blow of the coining press in the French Mint, and thereby broken to pieces. Mr. Wyon, indeed, had not the least doubt that iron or steel was employed for this purpose, as it was not unknown to the ancients. The mode of striking their monies must have been extremely simple, and the instruments used for this purpose, are probably to be seen on a coin of the republic-it has on the obverse, the head of a female, with the inscription "Moneta," and on the reverse the pincers, the hammer, and the anvil. The metal he conceived to have been cast in a globular shape, and having been placed between two dies, the upper one was struck with a hammer. We have evidence of the blow being repeated, by the appearance of their coins: they are frequently what is technically called double struck-this occurs when the piece has slipped out of its place after the first blow, and a repetition of the blow causes a double outline to appear. Mr. Wyon now described our present mode of engraving and multiplying the dies. The selection of the best cast steel for the purpose, he observed, was very important, and not sufficiently understood at present. The very fine steel that forms excellent gravers and other cutting instruments, is unfit for the purpose, for unless hardened with great care, it is very liable to crack. The very coarse seel is also objectionable, as it acquires fissures under the die press. The object therefore is, to select steel of a medium quality-but the best steel may be spoiled, by want of skill in the smith who forges the dies. When the rough die is brought to a table in the turning lathe, after being softened, the engraver commences his labours, by working out the device with the small tools in intaglio (sunk in), and when he has completed his work, the die is ready for hardening, which is in itself a very simple processbut one that is often attended with serious disappointment to the engraver, for it not unfrequently happens, that the labour of many months is esther injured or utterly destroyed, from the steel itself being faulty or heated to excess. But supposing the original die, or, as it is technically called, a matrix, to be uninjured by the process of hardening, it is vreserved for the purpose of furnishing a puncheon (or a steel impression in relief). For this purpose a block of soft steel is turned flat at the bottom and obtusely conical at the top. In this state, its conical surface is compressed into the matrix byza blow from the multiplying die press; this gives us only the commencement of an im pression, for the die becomes so hard from compression, as to require frequent annealing and re-striking before it is perfected. An impression taken in this way is called a puncheon, which, when the engraver has given to it all the delicacy of finish existing in the original, is then hardened, and serves for the purpose of making dies for coining, by a similar proeess, viz., impressing the hardened steel into that which is soft. The distinction, said Mr. Wyon, between striking medals and coins, is very essential, so much so, that I cannot avoid saying a few words on the subject. A medal is usually engraved in high relief, like those upon ancient coins, and it requires a succession of blows, sometimes forty or fifty, with repeated annealings, to make a perfect impression. A modern coin, on the contrary, is usually brought up with one blow, although with the disadvantage of the metal being harder. Standard gold, for instance, consists of one-twelfth of alloy; medals are usually made of fine gold; the engraving upon the coin is consequently made with a suitable degree of relief. In striking a coin or medal, the lateral spread of the metal, which would otherwise ooze out as it were from between the dies, is prevented by the application of a steel collar, accurately turned to the dimensions of the dies. The number of pieces which may be struck by one pair of dies, not unfrequently amounts to between three and four hundred thousand, but the average amount is much less. Mr. Wyon stated that he remembered instances of twenty dies being destroyed in one day, owing to the different qualities of steel, and to the casualties to which dies are liable. There are, it appears, eight presses in the coining-room of the Mint, and he considers that the destruction of one pair of dies for each press per day, is a very fair proportion, though it is generally rather more.. It must be remembered, that each press produces sixty pieces per minute, without reckoning the stoppages occasioned by changing of dies and other contingencies, and Mr. Wyon remarked, that in 1817, the daily produce of coins, in half-crowns, shillings, and sixpences, amounted to the enormous quantity of 343,000 per day, for three months at that time all the eight presses were employed; but on the 1st of last April, there were 125,000 pieces coined with five presses only. From the 4th of June 1817 to the 31st of December 1833, there were coined in sovereigns and half sovereigns, 52,187,2651. sterling. Mr. Wyon then proceeded to give a short account of modern medals, which in many PRACTICE OF ENGRAVING AND MULTIPLYING DIES. respects form an equally interesting study, as those of the ancients. On them we find battles by sea and land, processions, coronations, funeral pomps, and other ceremonies, alliances, marriages, portraits of illustrious men, and all that relates to policy or religion. Dates are rarely omitted, the absence of which on ancient coins and medals causes so much uncertainty. There is also another circumstance that materially contributes to the pleasure to be derived from the study of modern medals, which is their proximity to our own time, and their recording great events, with which we are in some degree already acquainted. In using the term modern, as applied to the subject, it is generally understood to comprise all those medals since the time of Charlemagne or the commencement of the ninth century, and it is curious to observe the intimate connexion between literature and the study of medals; for we find one of the earliest writers (Petrarch), forming a collection, and recommending them to Charles IV. as fit objects for his study and contemplation, and with a plain sincerity which did him honour, requesting the emperor to imitate the great men thereon celebrated. "I am not aware (continued Mr. Wyon) of the existence of modern medals, of any importance, previous to the revival of the art in the fifteenth century, that is to say, in 1400, and then the art was principally in the hands of painters, amongst which we have the names of Pisano, Boldu, and others. Pisano is celebrated as the chief restorer of this branch of the art, and his works are usually inscribed Opus Pisani Pictoris;' we have one of his, of Ferdinand, King of Arragon, 1449, and another of John, Emperor of Constantinople, ten years before. All the medals of this period are very unlike the ancient ones, being very large. They were previously modelled either in clay or wax, a cast from which being obtained in metal, it was carefully repaired, removing all the imperfections of casting, and giving a greater degree of finish than could be obtained in the original model. This then be-came a pattern, from which all the subsequent medals were cast; a slower mode of proceeding, and one preventing that rapidity of multiplication which we possess in the use of dies. The medals, however, thus produced, frequently present more vigour of execution; the heads upon them are very superior to their reverses." The most ancient series of modern medals struck from dies, is the Papal. We have Leotemporary portraits of Popes from Paul II., 1464, to the present time. There are, indeed, papal medals from Martin V., 1417, but all those before Paul II. were executed 189 during the pontificate of Alexander VII., 1655; by the care and under the direction of Abbé Bigot. The medals from the time of Alexander VI. are very fine, and it is said, that the designs upon some of those, during the pontificate of Julius II., Leo X., Hadrian VI., and Clement VII., are by great masters, amongst whom were Raffaelle and Julio Romano. Benvenuto Cellini informs us, that he executed several medals of Clement VII. Cavino and Bassiano, the celebrated forgers of Roman imperial coins, executed the medals from Julius II. to Gregory XIII. About the time of Innocent X., the very extraordinary family of artists, the Hamerani, appeared. They executed the papal medals for four or five generations, with great ability even one of the daughters engraved an excellent medal; and some of those by Gaspar Molo are very fine. The pontifical dress imparts great richness to the portraits, and the reverses are often very elaborate; sometimes twelve or fourteen figures are crowded together in the representations of religious ceremonies, within a space considerably less than a crown-piece. Perhaps, said Mr. Wyon, I ought not to omit mentioning the medal of Julius III., on the occasion of Mary of England restoring the Roman Catholic religion in this country. Next to Italy, France is the most remarkable country for medals; Louis XIV. is celebrated for his encouragement of the fine arts; he founded L'Académie des Inscriptions, for the purpose of selecting subjects and making designs for medals, to commemorate the great events of his reign. The result of the labours of the Academy was the production of nearly three hundred medals. The style of art exhibited in these, was in accordance with the taste of the period-it wants simplicity. Landscapes and a variety of emblems are crowded together in the back-grounds, for the purpose of giving a picturesque effect, which is injurious-the resources of the art being limited in comparison with those of painting. Mr. Flaxman's remarks were considered by Mr. Wyon as particularly applicable to his subject, where he says of the limited powers of basso-relievo, "that a tree or two, some rude stone, or a wall slightly marked in the back-ground, must indicate a forest, a mountain, or a palace, without detailing a portrait of their component parts." Napoleon, said Mr. Wyon, well understood the moral and political influence of the fine arts; his series of 160 medals is an evidence of the care and attention he bestowed upon the Mint, and these imperishable memorials will give immortality to his extraordinary career. They were executed under the direction of Denon: on the obverse of all of them we have the fine profile of Napoleon, and 190 PRACTICE OF ENGRAVING AND MULTIPLYING DIES. many of the reverses are admirable works of art. The battle of Jena, Jupiter launching his thunder against the Titans, Mars sheathing his sword after the battle of Friedland, Napoleon personifying Hercules, with two female figures kneeling, and presenting him with the keys of Vienna and Presburg, may be mentioned as examples: but for the most part they rather astonish us with a display of mechanical execution; the large medal of the battle of Marengo is surprising for the minuteness of the workmanship; and the medal of Pope Pius VII., in the coronation of Napoleon, is also remarkable for the execution of the building of Notre Dame on the reverse. Andrieu, Galle, Droz, and Brenet, were some of the most celebrated artists employed. But the Napoleon medals are not always implicitly to be relied on by the historian; as an instance, Bonaparte caused a medal to be struck on his intended invasion of this country; on the obverse, as usual, is the head of the emperor, and the reverse represents Hercules strangling a marine monster, around is the legend "DESCENTE EN ANGLETERRE," and in the exergue "Frappé à Londres." Happily for us, this was struck in anticipation only. This medal was afterwards destroyed; some few specimens, however, escaped, but they are excessively rare. Under such high auspices the art is recommended to and encouraged by the public, and individuals begin to pride themselves on their medallic taste, and not unfrequently adopt this mode of giving permanence to matters interesting to their feelings. It is not unusual, for instance, in France, for a medal to be engraved on the event of a marriage, with portraits of the hymeneal votaries, or with their names inscribed upon them, and some emblems of the happy event. Russia, Prussia, and Sweden, have emulated France in this passion for numismatic records. Mr. Wyon then adverted to the fact, that in our own country, on the contrary, with the exception of a few coronation medals, scarcely any have been struck by authority of the Government. But notwithstanding this neglect, the enterprise of individuals has produced many interesting medals, which show the spirit of the times in which they were executed. The first contemporary English medal is of Sir John Kendal, in 1480, and of Italian workmanship. We have a gold medal of Henry VIII., date 1545. Mr. Evelyn remarks, that in this medal Henry appears in his usual bonnet, furred gown, and an invaluable collar of rubies. The first coronation medal of England, is the one of Edw. VI.: it is of very indifferent workmanship, and in low relief. There are several beautiful medals by Trezzo, of Philip and Mary, and many curious ones of Elizabeth, on her accession to the crown, and the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. The medals of Elizabeth are generally cast, and have highly raised borders richly embossed during this reign, too, we have some exquisite medals by the famous Stephens, of Holland; and Mr. Wyon expressed a doubt whether there are any works superior to them for style in art: the admirable manner in which the flesh is treated, in distinction to the hardness of bone, in the face, could not, he said, be sufficiently studied or admired by the medallic artist or amateur; the reverses, however, are not equal to the heads. All the medals by Stephens are exceedingly rare. The history of James I. is tolerably well preserved in medals; they generally, in style, resemble those of Elizabeth; but there is a very good one by Warin, of Sir Thomas Bodley, founder of the Bodleian Library at Oxford. In the early part of the reign of Charles I. we have many counters struck on his marriage. The medals of this unfortunate monarch, Mr. Wyon observed, are numerous, many of which were engraved during the time of Charles II. by the Roettiers. Cromwell was fortunate in having excellent artists. The two Simons executed all the best medals; Abraham was a modeller, and there still remain in the British Museum many excellent models in wax by him; they were generally cast in silver, and some of the best were left untouched from the casting, but others were admirably chased and repaired by Thomas Simon. The great merit in these works, is the characteristic expression of living nature; other artists have been more correct, but often coldly correct, as compared with the Simons. A large oval medal, struck in gold, was presented to Admiral Blake, after the engagement with Van Tromp in 1653. The history of it was traced in a satisfactory manner till it came into the possession of Mr. Trattle; his present Majesty having heard of the circumstance, and feeling a deep interest in the naval glory of our country, gave a large sum for it, and the medal is now in his collection. Of Charles II. there are several good medals. Many medals occur of James II., both before and after his abdication; and the events of the reign of William III. called forth many interesting medals, the Dutch ones extend even from his infancy. The medals of Queen Anne are not only interesting as works of art, but particularly so as recording the great events with which Marlborough illuminated her reign. About 1730, John Dassier, a native of Geneva, settled in London, and engraved a series of medals of the Kings of England: they would be more valuable if the portraits could be relied on. He also execute a set of THE MAGNETO-ELECTRIC RING. 191 A B is a plate 1 foot or more in diameter, about an inch thick, and made of fine brass. CC, &c., are pieces of the best soft iron, annealed and set into the plate A B, so as to be in the plane of its surfaces. X marks where the axis is inserted into the plate. The pieces of iron are circular, or of whatever shape may accurately correspond with the transverse section of the members of the magnetic circuit, between which the plate works. As an additional inducement to the con. struction of the ring, or other apparatus on a large scale, I should have suggested, Our ingenious correspondent will have seen by this time that the article alluded to appeared in our Journal of the 24th May last, ten days before this letter was written.-ED. M. M. that there appears every reason to expect that, when the apparatus is increased beyond a certain size, the quantity of electricity disturbed by the galvanic reverser will be sufficient to force its way through an interval in the circuit; in other words, that a striking distance will be established, and so the central disc be dispensed with. This relief would be of great importance in the method I have proposed with permanent magnets, because it would render unnecessary the additional mechanism for disrupting the armature poles; and in the ring appa ratus, because it would avoid an inconvenience to be anticipated when the electrical development should be very powerful, namely, the incandescence and destruction of the spring which presses on the limb of the central disc. I am, sir, &c. June 6, 1834. [We take this opportunity of pointing out two or three typographical errata in the valuable article to which the preceding communication refers. Page 114, col. 1, for " bar armature" read "lever armature." 115, col. 1, near the top, for "armatures" read" annulus." col. 2, line 7, dele "sort." 116, col. 1, line 17, for "spark" read "shock."] NOTES AND NOTICES. Captain Ross, in the evidence given by him before the Select Committee of the House of Commons appointed to inquire into the circumstances of his lat Polar expedition, asserts that there is a difference of altitude, between the two seas east and west of Boothia Felix, amounting to thirteen feet! And he thinks this fact furnishes a strong presumption against the existence of any north-west passage. His nephew, Capt. John Clark Ross, is, however, of a perfectly opposite opinion. He states that he is not aware of any difference in the leve. of the two seas, and believes a north-west passage will be yet discovered. Captain Ross (sen.) is now at Copenhagen, where he is said to have gone to make arrangements for an exploratory expedition to the South Pole. At the last meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, a communication was read from a Mr. Rea, R.N., giving an account of a South Polar expedition, fitted out last year by Messrs. Enderby, of London, but which totally failed long before reaching the Antarctic seas, in consequence of the loss of one of the vessels on an ice island, in lat. 60° south, long. 57° 30′ west. In Mr. Rea's opinion, however, this was a mere accident, which ought not to discourage another attempt. A paper, by Mr. Barlow, was read at a late meeting of the Royal Society, in which he gives the result of a number of experiments to ascertain the relative velocities of the Government steamers. It appears from these experiments, that the increase of speed gained by the adoption of vertically dipping paddle boards is very trifling-so much so, |